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VETERINARY  MEDICINE  SERIES 


Edited  by 

D,  M.  CAMPBELL,  D.V.S. 

Px'.itor 
American  Journal  of  Veterinary  Medicine 


POULTRY  DISEASES 

AND 
THEIR  TREATMENT 


By 

B.  F.  KAUPP,  M.  Sc,  D.  V.  S. 

Commissioner  of  Health, 
Spartanburg,  S.  C. 


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COPYBIGHT,    1914, 
BY 

D.  M.  Campbell 


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VETERINARY    MEDICINE     SERIES 
No.  2 

Edited  by  D.  M.  CAMPBELL,  D.  V.  S. 


POULTRY  DISEASES 
AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

BY 

B.  F.  I^UPP,  M.  Sc,  D.  V.  S. 

Gpmmissioxer    of    Health,    Spartaxbubg,    South    Caboli>'a; 
Author 'of   "Aximal   Parasites   axd   Parasitic  Diseases"; 
formerly    professor    of    pathology,    di\^siox    of    veter- 
INARY  Medicixe,    Colorado   Agricultural   College,    akd 
Pathologist  to  the  Colorado  Agricultural  Station; 
FORMERLY  Professor  of  Parasitology,  Kansas  City 
Veterinary  College,  and  Director  of  the  Anat- 
omy Laboratory;  formerly  Veterin.ary  Inspec- 
tor.   Bureau   of   Animal    Industry,    U.    S. 
Department  of  Agriculture;  Chairman 
of  Committee  on  Diseases  of  the 
American  Veterinary  Associa- 
tion, 1911,  etc.,  etc. 


Chicago 
AMERICAN    JOURNAL    OF    VETERINARY    MEDICINE 

1914 


Succe>^s  is  Dot  lucJ:,  nor  pull,  nor  a 
soft  snap,  liut  flic  longest,  steadiest, 
hardest  task  one  ever  undertook. 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  written  to  fill  a  demand  from 
Veterinary  students,  students  in  Poultrj'  Hus- 
bandry courses  at  our  Agricultural  Colleges,  for 
Veterinary  practitioners  and  for  others  interested 
in  the  scientific  treatment  of  poultry  diseases. 

An  etfort  has  been  made  to  make  the  language 
so  plain  that  all  can  comprehend  the  subject- 
matter,  which  is  a  summary  of  thoughts  from 
experimental  research  in  the  Laboratory  of 
Pathology  of  the  author  and  of  many  other  in- 
vestigators. 

For  the  purpose  of  simplification,  the  synonyms 
are  given  for  the  various  names  of  diseases.  Then 
follow,  in  order,  the  cause,  or  causes,  the  symp- 
toms, the  conditions  found  upon  postmortem  ex- 
amination, and  lastly  the  treatment  for  each 
disease. 

The  author  is  under  very  great  obligations  to 
Dr.  D.  M.  Campbell,  Editor  of  the  American 
JouEXAL  OF  Veterinary  Medicixe,  for  editing  and 
arranging  his  laboratory  notes  on  this  subject 
into  a  related  whole,  as  here  presented,  and  for 
the  section  on  Sanitation  and  some  other  portions. 

B.  F.  K. 

Spartanburg,  S.  C,  February,  1914. 


CONTENTS 


SECTION    I.  PAGE 

Anatomy 15 

Review  of  the  Anatomy  of  the  Hen. 

SECTION   II. 
Sanitation 19 

SECTION   III. 

External    Parasites    35 

Lice  of  Birds — Lice  of  Chickens — Lice  of  Turkeys — 
Lice  of  Ducks — Lice  of  Geese — Lice  of  Pigeons— Life 
History  of  Lice — Effects  of  Louse  Infestation — Dealing 
With  Louse  Infestation — Scabies  in  Birds — Scaly  Legs 
— Sarcoptes  Mutans — Air  Sac  Disease — Cytodites 
Nudus — Chigger  Infestation — Trombidium  Holoseri — 
ceum — Dermanyssus  Gallinse — Fleas  Affecting  Birds — • 
Pulex  Avium — Tick  Infestation — Argus  Miniatus — 
The  Bedbug  of  Poultry — Acanthia  Inodora — Fungi  Af- 
fecting Birds — Thrush — Tinea  Favosa — Pneumomyco- 
sis. 

SECTION    IV. 

Internal  Parasites  59 

Important  Round  AVorms — Ascaris  Inflexa — Heter- 
akis  Papillosa  —  Spiroptera  Hamulosa  —  Syngamus 
Trachealis — Unimportant  Round  Worms — Heterakis 
Differens — Heterakis  Compressa — Trichosomum — Het- 
erakis Maculosa — Tape  Worms — Taenia  Infundibuli- 
formis — Davainea  Tetragona — Thorn-Headed  Worms — 
Other    Taenia — Echinorynchus    Polymorphus — Flukes. 

SECTION  V. 

Disease  of  the  Digestive  Tract 73 

Obstruction  of  the  Beak — Stomatitis — Crop  Bound — 
Tympany  of  the  Crop — Gangrene  of  the  Crop — Catarrh 
of  the  Crop — Depraved  Appetite — Fowl  Cholera — 
Blackhead — Diarrhea — White  Diarrhea — Blastomyco- 
sis of  the  Pigeon — Coccidiosis  of  Wild  Ducks — Arseni- 
cal Poisoning — Ptomain  Poisoning — Corn  Cockle  Poi- 
soning— Salt  Poisoning — Cloacitis. 

7 


8  POULTRY  DISEASES 

SECTION  VI.  PAGE 

DlSKASES    Ol'    THE    BlOOD 107 

Apopk'ctiforni  Septiceuiia  of  Chickens  and  Pigeons 
— Septicemia  of  G<'ese — Fowl  Typhoid — Thrombosis — 
Spirochetosis — Pericarditis  —  Endocarditis  —  Rupture 
of  the  Heart  and  Large  Blood  Vessels. 

SECTION  VII. 

COXSTITUTIOXAL     DlSE.\SES      . 115 

Going  Light — Tuberculosis. 

SECTION  VIII. 

DiSE.VSES  OF  THE   LlVlilt 123 

Fatty  Degeneration — Fatty  Infiltration — Rupture  of 
the  Liver — Congestion  of  the  Liver — Inflammation  of 
the  Liver. 

SECTION  IX. 

DiSE.VSES  OF  THE  OVABY  AND  OviDUCT 129 

Prolapse  or  Eversion  of  the  Oviduct — Obstruction  of 
the  Oviduct — Eggs  Broken  in  Oviduct — Prolapse  of  the 
Cloaca — Rupture  of  the  Oviduct — Abnormal  Eggs. 

SECTION  X. 

Tl-.AFOKS 135 

Hematoma — Multiple  Tumors  of  the  Ovary — Cystic 
Ovary  — Sarcoma  — Adenoma  — Lymphosarcoma — Epi- 
thelioma. 

SECTION  XI. 

Diseases  of  the  Respikatouy  Passages 139 

Obstruction  of  the  Trachea — Colds — Bronchitis — 
Congestion  of  the  Lungs — Pneumonia — Pneumomy- 
cosis— Aspergillosis — Swell  Head  in  Young  Turkeys — 
Chicken   Pox — Roup — Conjunctivitis. 

SECTION  XII. 

Diseases  of  the  Legs  and  Feet. 157 

Leg  Weakness — Abscess  of  the  Feet — Bumble  Foot. 

SECTION  XIII. 

Diseases   of   the   Braix 161 

Vertigo — Hemorrhage  of  the  Brain. 


CONTENTS  9 

SECTION  XIV.  PAGE 

Bacteria  of  the  Intestinal  Tract  of  Chickens........  163 

SECTION  XV. 

The  Egg 165 

Animal   Parasites — Bacteria   of  Eggs. 

SECTION  XVI. 

ISOLATIOX  OF  NOXLAYERS 171 

The    X-Ray — The    Pubic    Bone  '  Examination — The 
Trap  Nest. 

SECTION  XVII. 
Malformations 175 

SECTION   XVIII. 
Fractures — Wounds — Anesthesia 179 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

1.  Visceral  Anatomy  of  the  Hen 14 

2.  Menopon   Biseriatum    (large  hen  louse) 36 

3.  Menopon  Pallidum   (small  hen  louse) 36 

4.  Goniocotes  Hologaster   (chicken  louse) 37 

5.  Lipeurus   Infuscatus    (chicken   louse) 37 

6.  Goniodes  Stylifer    (turkey  louse) 37 

7.  Lipeurus  Baculus   (pigeon  louse) ■ 38 

8.  Ova  of  the  Goniodes  Stylifer   (louse  egg) 38 

9.  A  Convenient  and  Inexpensive  Spray  Pump 42 

10.  Sarcoptes  Mutans  Variety  Gallinae   (scaly  leg  mite).  44 

11.  Scaly  Legs    (Scabies) 45 

12.  Cytodites  Nudus   (air  sac  mite) 49 

13.  Trombidium  Holosericeum   (chicken  chigger) 49 

14.  Dermanyssus   Gallinse    (chicken   mite) 51 

15.  Pulex  Avium   (chicken  flea) 51 

16.  -  Argas  Miniatus   (the  chicken  tick) 54 

17.  Acanthia  Inodora   (chicken  bug) 54 

18.  Ascaris  Inflexa   (large  round  worm) 61 

19.  Heterakis  Papillosa,  male  and  female 61 

20.  Heterakis  Papillosa,  head  magnified 61 

21.  Heterakis  Papillosa,  caudal  extremity  of  male 63 

22.  Spiroptera  Hamulosa    (gizzard  worm) 63 

23.  Syngamus  Trachealis   (gapeworms) 64 

24.  Teenia  Infundibuliformis   (a  tapeworm  of  chickens).  69 

25.  Nodular  Taeniasis    (tapeworm  disease) 70 

26.  Blood  Smear  Showing  B.  Avisepticus 80 

27.  Enterohepatitis 86 

28.  Cloudy  Swelling  Due  to  Enterohepatitis 87 

29.  Section   Showing  Enterohepatitis 88 

30.  Blood    Smear    from    Case    of    Enterohepatitis    of    a 

turkey    89 

31.  Section  of  Kidney  from  a  Turkey  Dead  of  Entero- 

hepatitis      89 

32.  Cecum   (blind  gut)   Enterohepatitis  Showing  Ulcer..  90 

33.  Hemorrhagic  Enteritis;   Intestines  of  a  Hen 93 

34.  Section  through  Cecum  of  a  Case  of  Coccidian  White 

Diarrhea    97 

35.  Higher  Magnification  of  Above 97 

36.  Blastomycosis  in  a  Pigeon 99 

11 


12  POULTRY  DISEASES 

KIGIJRK  PAGE 

37.  Pulmonary    Coccidiosis 100 

38.  Intestinal    Coccidiosis 100 

39.  Thrombosis    in   a   Hen 110 

40.  Spirocheta    Gallinarum Ill 

41.  Spirochetosis   in   a  Hen Ill 

42.  Tuberculosis  of  the  Liver  and  Spleen 119 

43.  Hematoma   of   Ovary 135 

44.  Multiple  Tumors  of  the  Ovary 137 

45.  Obstruction  of  the  Trachea 140 

46.  Chicken  Pox 148 

47.  Roup,  Showing  Bulging  Below  the  Eye 151 

48.  Diphtheric    Roup 152 

49.  Skiagraph  of  the  Head  and  Neck 155 

50.  Thorn    Abscess 158 

51.  Skiagraph   of  a  Laying   Hen 170 

52.  Skiagraph  of  a  Normal  Hen 171 

53.  Trap   Nest 172 

54.  Trap   Nest 173 

55.  Monster   Chick 176 

56.  Polymelus    177 


"  j/i 


Plate    I. 


SECTION  I 

Visceral    Anatomy    of    the 

Hen 

Digestive  and  Genito-Urinary  Tracts 

PLATE  I. 

1.  Beek.  2.  Tongue.  3.  Pharynx  (throat) 
through  which  the  food  passes  to  the  esophagus 
(gullett)  4.  5.  The  crop,  a  storehouse  or  granary 
where  the  food  accumulates  during  feeding.  6. 
Second  portion  of  the  esophagus,  through  which 
the  food  passes  from  the  crop  into  7,  the  proven- 
triculus. 

A  part  of  the  abdominal  organs  are  laid  over 
to  the  left,  so  that  the  proventriculus  or  true  stom- 
ach, lies  over  the  liver.  The  second  portion  of  the 
esophagus  empties  into  the  proventriculus,  or  true 
stomach,  in  whose  walls  are  found  secreting  glands 
similar  to  those  of  the  stomach  of  higher  animals. 

The  food,  after  being  soaked  in  this  secretion, 
passes  into  the  gizzard,  8,  a  muscular  organ,  where 
the  grain  and  other  coarse  particles  are  ground  by 
the  contractions  of  its  muscular  walls  and  the  grit 
which  it  contains.  From  the  gizzard,  the  food 
passes  into  the  duodenum,  9.  10  represents  the 
deep  (duodenal)  or  the  first  portion  of  the  small 
intestines,  between  the  folds  of  which  is  located 
the  pancreas,  25,  which  pours  its  digestive  secre- 
tion into  the  small  intestines.  11  represents  the 
floating  portion  of  the  small  intestines  supported 
by  the  mesentery  (web-like  membrane)  19,  which 

15 


16  POULTRY  DISEASES 

also  shows  the  distribution  of  the  blood  vessels  in 
their  course  to  that  part.  12  represents  the  ceca, 
or  two  blind  guts,  the  blind  extremities  indicated  at 
13.  These  empty  into  tlie  remainder  of  the  in- 
testine at  14.  15  represents  the  rectum,  or 
straight  gut,  which  is  joined  by  the  egg  sac,  23, 
at  17,  forming  the  cloaca  or  common  pouch,  16. 

At  20,  the  ureter  from  the  kidney,  21,  empties 
the  secretion  from  that  gland  into  the  rectum. 
The  cloaca  discharges  its  contents,  feces,  urine, 
and  eggs,  through  the  anus,  18,  into  the  external 
world.  The  right  ovary  perishes  as  the  hen  de- 
velops, so  that  only  one  ovar}^  the  left,  22,  re- 
mains. The  egg  canal,  23,  lias  a  muscular  wall 
for  the  purpose  of  forcing  the  egg  along  as  it 
develops;  it  is  also  provided  with  glands  which 
aid  in  the  formation  of  the  albumin,  egg  shell, 
etc.  This  sac,  at  its  anterior  end,  receives  the  ovum 
(yolk)  from  the  ovary  as  soon  as  it  is  mature. 

The  liver,  26,  which  has  been  turned  back,  is 
crossed  by  the  proventriculus,  7.  The  gall-bladder 
is  shown  at  27,  where  the  bile  (liver  secretion) 
is  stored  up  till  active  digestion  begins  in  the 
small  intestine,  into  which  it  is  then  discharged. 
The  spleen,  a  blood-forming  organ,  is  indicated 
at  28. 

Organs  of  Respiration 

The  nostrils  are  shown  at  29 ;  air  passes  from 
this  point  through  the  nasal  passage,  indicated  by 
Lhe  dotted  line,  and  enters  the  pharynx  through  the 
opening  (posterior  nares)  at  33.  32.  Turbinated 
bone  of  the  right  nasal  chamber.  30.  Frontal  sinus. 
31.  Maxillary  (infraorbital)  sinus,  analogous  to 
the  same  in  the  higher  animals. 

The  air  passes  through  the  pharynx,  3,  into  the 


VISCERAL  ANATOMY  OF  THE  HEN      17 

larynx,  35,  tlirougli  the  opening  (glottis)  34.  From 
the  larynx  the  air  passes  through  the  trachea 
(windpipe)  36.  At  37  there  is  a  flattened  portion, 
the  false  larynx,  provided  with  vocal  cord-like 
structures — the  organ  of  sound.  Just  below  this 
point  is  the  bifurcation  (branching)  of  the  trachea, 
one  branch  going  to  each  lung.    38.    Left  lung. 

Organs  of  Circulation 

The  heart,  39,  is  illustrated  pulled  down,  to  bring 
it  into  view.  40.  Main  artery  (aorta)  leading 
from  the  heart.  42.  Carotid  artery,  a  branch  of 
the  aorta,  supplying  the  neck  and  head.  41.  Left 
brachial  artery,  a  branch  of  the  aorta,  supplying 
blood  to  the  left  wing. 


SECTION  II 

Sanitation 

Where  any  considerable  number  of  birds  are 
brought  together  on  limited  grounds,  disease  is 
certain  to  appear  among  them  sooner  or  later. 
The  greater  the  number  of  birds  kept  on  any  given 
area,  other  things  being  equal,  the  sooner  disease 
will  appear,  the  more  rapidly  will  it  spread,  and 
the  greater  will  be  the  loss  from  it. 

All  intelligently  directed  measures  to  prevent  or 
delay  the  appearanc  of  disease  in  a  flock,  all  sane 
measures  to  limit  its  spread  and  encompass  its 
eradication,  constitute  sanitation.  Measures,  the 
purpose  of  which  are  to  cure  the  sick  birds  or  re- 
lieve their  suffering,  come  under  the  head  of 
therapeutics  or  therapy. 

On  farms  of  considerable  size,  where  attention 
is  given  chiefly  to  general  crops,  and  but  few  fowls 
are  kept  on  a  practically  unlimited  range,  the  loss 
from  disease  may  be  small,  where  indifferent  or 
even  bad  sanitation  prevails;  but  in  intensive 
poultry  plants,  where  the  number  of  birds  is 
large  for  the  size  of  the  range,  there  can  be  no 
continued  exemption  from  devastating  epiorni- 
thics,  if  reasonable  sanitation  is  not  enforced.  Any 
attempt  to  operate  such  a  plant  in  insanitary 
buildings  and  yards,  or  under  conditions  that  do 
not  permit  of  sanitation,  while  it  may  succeed  for 
a  time,  will  result  in  loss  oftener  than  otherwise 
and,  in  the  end,  must  inevitably  fail. 

19 


20  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Site  for  Poultry  Plant 

A  rolling,  or  eveu  steep,  i)lot  of  ground  is  dv- 
siral)le  for  tlie  location  of  the  poultry  houses  and 
the  runs  for  the  fowls.  Good  drainage  is  a  neees- 
sary  requirement,  and  must  be  provided  for  arti- 
fieially  if  the  location  is  such  that  natural  drain- 
age is  not  perfect. 

The  surface  of  the  poultry  yard  must  be  free 
from  uneveness  so  that  water  will  not  collect  in 
little  pools. 

The  poultry  runs  and  buildings  should  have  a 
free  exposure  to  sunlight,  though  some  shade 
must  be  provided  for  protection  during  excessively 
hot  sunnuer  days. 

The  soil  should  contain  a  goodly  proportion  of 
sand.  It  is  very  desirable  that  it  be  of  such  a 
nature  that  the  runs  will  not  readily  become 
muddy  during  wet  weather,  and  such  that  they 
will  dry  very  quickly  after  rains. 

Buildings  and  Runs 

It  is  not  within  the  province  of  this  work  to  dis- 
cuss plans  for  the  construction  of  poultry  houses 
and  poultry  yards.  Those  desiring  information 
on  this  subject  may  secure  detailed  directions  from 
several  agricultural  experiment  station  bulletins 
(Bulletin  No.  215,  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Station, 
Madison ;  Bulletin  No.  26G,  Michigan  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  Lansing;  Bulletin  No.  107, 
Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Colum- 
bia; Bulletin  No.  244,  New  Jersey  Agricultural 
Station,  New  Brunswick,  etc.). 

The  arrangement  of  the  poultry  house  should 
admit  the  sunlight  freely  to  all  parts  of  the  build- 
ing, provide  plentiful  ventilation  without  per- 
mitting a  draught  to  blow  directly  upon  the  roosts, 


SANITATION  21 

and  enable  the  building  to  be  easily  and  thoroughly 
cleaned. 

Sunlight  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  disin- 
fectants, even  a  parasiticide  for  certain  young  par- 
asites, and  is  necessary  to  the  health  and  con- 
tentment of  the  fowls.  It  has  the  advantage  also 
of  revealing  filth  in  the  building  which  might 
otherwise  escape  the  eye  of  the  attendant,  and  re- 
main to  breed  disease  in  the  flock. 

Ventilation  should  be  definitely  provided  for  in 
the  construction  by  ventilators  and  the  proper 
arrangement  of  doors,  windows  and  other  open- 
ings and  not  left  to  cracks  in  the  walls  and  to 
chance  openings.  Cracks  in  the  walls  are  an  abom- 
ination and  ever  present  protection  to,  and  nursery 
for  external  parasites,  and  a  harbor  in  which 
disease  germs  may  weather  the  application  of  dis- 
infectants. 

The  interior  of  the  poultry  house  should  be 
whitewashed  after  a  thorough  cleaning  and  disin- 
fecting, twice,  or  better,  four  times  a  year.  White- 
wash is  desirable  because  of  its  clean  appearance, 
its  cheapness,  and  the  ease  of  its  application  (use 
a  spray  pump),  because  of  the  antiseptic  value 
of  the  lime,  and  because  of  its  high  reflection  of 
light. 

The  roosts  should,  of  course,  be  removable  to 
permit  of  cleaning,  and  should  come  near  to  the 
floor  so  that  heavy  birds  may  not  be  injured  in 
jumping  off  of  them.  Like  the  walls,  they  should 
be  free  from  cracks  and  whitewashed  two  to  four 
times  yearly.  During  the  hot  season,  the  roosts 
should  be  wet  with  kerosene  once  a  week.  This 
will  aid  very  materially  in  keeping  mites  and  lice 
from  the  fowls.  Dropping  pans  placed  under  the 
roosts  are  a  convenience  worth  while,  for  sanitary 
reasons. 


22  POULTRY  DISEASES 

The  floor  of  poultry  lioiises  should  be  of  con- 
crete ;  it  should  be  filled  in  until  it  is  several  inches 
to  a  foot  higher  than  the  surface  of  the  ground 
surrounding  the  building;  immediately  beneath 
the  concrete  there  should  be  a  layer  of  cinders 
or  very  coarse  gravel,  six  or  eight  inches  thick. 
A  floor  so  constructed  will  not  absorb  dampnes?. 
from  below.  It  is  lasting,  and  is  easily  cleaned 
and  disinfected. 

An  open  shed  facing  the  south,  where  the  birds 
can  enjoy  scratching  and  dust  throughout  the 
year,  is  a  great  aid  in  maintaing  the  health  and 
productiveness  of  the  flock. 

Portable  houses  and  runs,  that  can  be  moved 
from  place  to  place,  furnish  fresh  soil,  a  change 
of  food,  abundant  insects,  etc.,  and  possess  many 
advantages  of  sanitation. 

The  poultry  yards  or  runs  should  furnish,  at 
least,  100  square  feet  or  better,  150  square  feet 
of  space  for  each  bird;  as  stated  previously, 
the  runs  should  be  well  drained  and  free  from 
puddles  of  mud  and  water. 

WaterlSupply 

Fowls  require  water  in  abundance  at  all  times 
for  the  best  production  of  eggs  (which  are  sixty 
per  cent  water)  and  flesh  (which  is  sixty  to 
eighty  per  cent  water)  and  to  avoid  great  suffer- 
ing during  hot  weather. 

The  water  should  be  clean,  supplied  fresh  every 
day,  and  in  vessels  so  arranged  that  the  birds 
cannot  get  into  them  and  thus  contaminate  it  with 
the  filth  from  the  yards  which  adheres  to  their 
feet.  As  is  shown  under  the  discussions  of  the 
various  infectious  diseases  and  parasitisms,  these 
are  spread  in  most  cases,  not  by  direct  contagion 


SANITATION  23 

between  the  sick  and  the  well  birds,  but,  indirectly, 
through  the  medium  of  the  soil  and  roosts  on  which 
the  birds  live,  the  food  that  they  eat,  and  the 
water  that  they  drink. 

The  vessels  containing  the  drinking  water 
should,  under  normal  conditions,  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  disinfected  daily  in  hot  weather,  and 
once  a  week  the  remainder  of  the  year.  When 
disease  is  present  in  the  flock,  the  vessels  for 
drinking  water  should  be  cleaned  daily,  regard- 
less of  the  season,  and  this  practice  should  be  con- 
tinued for  several  days  after  all  symptoms  of  the 
disease  have  ceased  to  appear  in  the  flock.  Vessels 
containing  water  for  small  chicks  should  be 
cleaned  daily. 

The  cleaning  is  mainly  a  matter  of  thorough 
washing;  the  disinfection  of  drinking  vessels  can 
best  be  accomplished  with  a  five  per  cent  solution 
(in  water)  of  carbolic  acid. 

Chickens  tolerate  certain  antiseptics  internally 
very  well  and  do  not  resent  the  taste  of  them  in 
drinking  water  to  the  extent  that  other  animals 
do,  and  it  is  a  wise  policy  to  use  antiseptics  in  the 
drinking  water  whenever  an  infectious  disease  is 
present  on  the  premises  or  when  the  purity  of  the 
water  is  under  suspicion. 

The  most  desirable  antiseptic  to  use  in  the  drink- 
ing water  is  potassium  permanganate.  Place  a 
quantity  of  the  crystals  in  a  large  bottle  or  jar 
and  fill  with  water;  of  this  solution  use  sufficient 
in  the  drinking  water  to  give  it  a  slight  color 
which  will  remain  for  some  hours.  More  water 
can  be  added  to  the  stock  solution  from  time  to 
time,  as  needed,  care  being  taken  to  keep  an  ex- 
cess of  the  permanganate  crystals  always  in  the 
bottom  of  the  jar. 


24  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Pure  carbolic  acid  may  be  used  in  tbe  drinking 
water  wiili  good  effect  during  the  presence  of 
contagion,  or  to  insure  the  purity  of  the  water. 
Add  a  sufficient  quantity  to  make  a  one-half  of 
one  per  cent  solution  (five  teaspoonfuls  to  the  gal- 
lon). Do  not  use  the  permanganate  and  the  car- 
bolic acid  at  the  same  time. 

Under  many  conditions,  particularly  when  en- 
teric diseases  are  present  in  the  flock,  mercuric 
chloride  (corrosive  sublimate,  bichloride  of  mer 
cury,  per  chloride  of  mercury)  is  a  valuable  anti- 
septic for  the  drinking  water.  Employ  it  in 
solutions  of  1  to  5,000  to  1  to  10,000  (from  three- 
fourths  to  one  and  one-half  grains  to  the  gallon). 

Both  mercuric  chloride  and  carbolic  acid  are 
very  poisonous  and  must  be  handled  with  great 
care.  On  this  account,  the  comparatively  harm- 
less potassium  permanganate  should  be  used,  or 
chinosol,  which  is  equally  harmless,  may  be  used 
in  a  solution  of  1  to  2,000  (two  tablets  to  the  gallon 
of  drinking  water). 

Disinfection 

The  removal  of  parasites  and  disease  germs  or 
their  destruction  is  termed  disinfection.  Because 
of  the  ability  of  these  organisms  to  multiply,  from 
a  single  individual  or  a  single  pair,  at  an  astonish- 
ing rate  and  speedily  reinfect  the  premises,  it  is 
obvious  that  to  be  of  any  value  the  disinfecting 
must  be  thoroughly  done. 

The  first  step  in  any  disinfection  is  the  re- 
moval of  oil  visible  filth.  A  small  lump  of  manure 
behind  a  nest  box  or  a  single  grain  of  dirt  in  a 
crack  in  the  floor  or  on  the  roosts  may  furnish 
the  hiding  place  from  which  will  emerge  the  par- 
asites or  germs  to  reinfest  the  whole  building,  and 


SANITATION  25 

spread  disease  anew  among  the  flock,  thus  undoing 
the  whol6  of  the  disinfection. 

Disinfection  of  Buildings.— The  first  operation  in 
disinfecting  a  poultry  house,  therefore,  is  the 
thorough  removal  of  all  manure,  trash  and  litter. 
If  the  roosts  and  nests  are  removed  from  the 
building,  they  must  be  cleaned  and  disinfected  be- 
fore they  are  returned ;  if  left  in  the  building  dur- 
ing the  disinfection,  they  must  be  as  thoroughly 
cleaned  as  the  remainder  of  the  building,  and  the 
disinfectant  used  must  be  applied  to  them  as  care- 
fully as  to  other  parts  of  the  building. 

The  floor  and  roosts  should  next  be  scraped,  and 
they  and  the  walls  and  ceiling  carefully  and  vigor- 
ously swept.  All  parts  of  the  interior  of  the  build- 
ing must  then  be  thoroughly  scrubbed  with  water, 
to  which  lye  has  been  added,  and  a  broom  or  stiff 
brush  and  then  flushed  out,  using  plenty  of  water. 
The  building  is  then  ready  for  the  use  of  the  dis- 
infectant. 

There  are  three  different  classes  of  agents  that 
may  be  successfully  used  in  disinfection.  The  dis- 
infectant may  be  applied  in  gaseous  form,  as  a 
liquid,  or  heat  msij  be  utilized. 

A  gas  may  be  used  in  disinfecting  only  when 
the  building  can  be  closed  tightly  enough  to  pre- 
vent its  ready  escape.  This  excludes  the  great 
majority  of  poultry  houses ;  but  in  such  as  it  can 
be  employed,  all  doors,  windows  and  other  open- 
ings must  be  tightly  closed  and  kept  closed  for 
several  hours.  After  disinfecting  a  building  with 
gas  the  interior  should  be  whitewashed,  as  directed 
under  the  use  of  liquid  disinfectants. 

Of  the  gases  that  may  be  used,  only  three  need 
to  be  considered  here — hydrocyanic  acid,  formal- 
dehyde and  sulphur  dioxide. 


26  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Hydrocyanic  acid  gas  is  extremely  poisonous, 
a  single  breath  of  it  sometimes  sufficing  to  kill  a 
man.  It  possesses  the  advantage  of  requiring  but 
a  few  minutes  to  effectively  disinfect  a  building 
and  of  killing  all  living  organisms  in  it,  bacteria, 
molds,  parasites  and  even  roaches  and  other  ver- 
min, and  rodents.  It  will  also  destroy  the  eggs  of 
parasites.  It  is  extremely  dangerous,  however, 
except  in  professional  hands,  and  its  use  must  not 
be  attempted  by  the  poultryman. 

Excluding  hydrocyanic  acid  on  account  of  the 
hazard  attending  its  use,  formaldehyde  is  the 
gaseous  disinfectant  of  choice.  It  may  be  secured 
in  a  forty  per  cent  watery  solution  known  as  for- 
malin, from  which  the  gas  may  be  readily  gen- 
erated. 

After  hermetically  sealing  all  openings  into  the 
building  except  one  door,  place  in  an  earthen  or 
metal  vessel  two  quarts  of  formalin  for  each  1,000 
cubic  feet  of  space  in  the  building,  place  this 
vessel  in  a  much  larger  one  and  set  on  the  floor, 
then  empty  into  the  formalin  one-half  pound  of 
potassium  permanganate  for  each  quart  of  forma- 
lin and  retreat  from  the  building  at  once  and  close 
the  door. 

The  tem])erature  of  the  room,  during  the  dis- 
infection, sliould  be  above  50  dog.  F.,  and  the  more 
it  is  above  this  temperature,  the  better.  Moisture 
in  the  air  is  an  aid  in  this  sort  of  disinfection; 
it  may  be  secured  by  sprinkling  the  floor  just  be- 
fore starting  the  generation  of  the  gas.  The  build- 
ing should  be  kept  closed  six  to  twenty-four  hours. 
It  must  be  thoroughly  aired  before  the  fowls  are 
permitted  to  reenter  it. 

Such  disinfection  may  not  destroy  rats  and 
mice,  or  the  larger  parasites  and  their  eggs. 


SANITATION  27 

For  disinfecting  with  sulphur  fumes,  the  ordi- 
nary commercial  flowers  of  sulphur  should  be  used. 
It  must  be  burned  in  the  building  to  generate  sul- 
phur dioxide,  which  is  effective  in  disinfection  only 
in  the  presence  of  water  vapor;  therefore  some 
means  for  providing  the  necessary  moisture  in 
the  building  must  be  provided.  This  may  be  ac- 
complished by  spraying  the  walls  and  ceiling  until 
they  are  dripping,  just  before  beginning  the  disin- 
fecting, or  by  boiling  a  large  vessel  of  water  in 
the  building  during  the  generation  of  the  sulphur 
fumes. 

Fire  is  required  to  generate  the  sulphur  fumes 
and  care  must  be  taken  not  to  endanger  the  build- 
ing with  it.  A  large  iron  vessel  partly  filled  with 
live  coals  may  be  used ;  set  it  on  the  floor,  or  if  the 
floor  be  of  combustible  material,  on  several  bricks 
laid  on  the  floor,  and  pour  onto  the  live  coals  two 
pounds  of  sulphur  for  each  1,000  cubic  feet  of 
space  in  the  building.  Care  should  be  taken  to  as- 
certain that  the  sulphur  actually  begins  to  burn. 

The  building  should  remain  hermetically  sealed 
for  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  and  then 
be  thoroughly  aired  before  the  fowls  are  admitted. 

Compared  with  hydrocyanic  acid  and  formalde- 
liyde,  sulphur  dioxide  is  a  feeble  disinfectant,  but 
effective  work  may  be  done  with  it  by  a  thorough, 
careful  application,  and  attention  to  all  details. 

The  disinfection  of  the  drinking  water  and 
drinking  fountains  is  discussed  fully  under 
' '  Water  Supply. "    (See  page  22. ) 

Disinfectants  that  can  be  applied  in  liquid  form 
are  best  suited  for  disinfecting  the  ordinary 
poultry  house.  It  requires  longer  to  apply  them 
than  it  does  to  prepare  for  disinfection  by  gas, 
and  germs  and  parasites  protected  in  crevices  and 


28  POULTRY  DISEASES 

in  decayed  surfaces  of  wooden  walls  cannot  be 
reached,  as  by  the  gaseous  disinfectants.  Fowls 
need  not  be  shut  out  of  the  building  for  several 
hours,  as  is  the  case  when  the  gas  is  used.  This 
is  often  a  considerable  advantage.  Furthermore, 
the  germs  and  parasites  hidden  in  the  walls  and 
roosts  and  buried  in  the  decayed  surface  of  wooden 
buildings  can  in  a  great  measure  be  covered  up 
and  rendered  harmless  by  the  use  of  whitewash, 
which  should  always  be  a  part  of  the  cloaning-up 
and  disinfecting  of  a  poultry  house. 

Liquid  disinfectants  are  best  applied  with  the 
spray  puni]i,  and  all  the  force  possible  should  be 
used  in  throwing  the  spray  on  the  walls.  In  this 
way  it  will  reach  all  parts  of  an  uneven  surface 
better  than  when  applied  with  a  brush,  and  much 
time  will  also  be  saved  in  its  application. 

Disinfectants  will  act  more  vigorously  when  ap- 
plied hot,  and  solutions  should  always  be  at  least 
warm  when  they  reach  the  surfaces  to  be  disin- 
fected. A  copious  quantity  should  be  used.  The 
solution  may  cost  but  a  fraction  of  a  cent,  or  at 
most  a  few  cents  a  gallon,  and  it  is  a  poor  policy 
to  economize  by  using  an  insufficient  amount. 
Every  part  of  the  surface  of  the  interior  of  the 
Iniilding  should  be  thoroughly  wet  and  completely 
covered  with  solution  when  disinfection  is  com- 
pleted; great  care  must  be  observed  that  no  part 
is  skipped. 

Mercuric  chloride  is  one  of  the  most  powerful 
disinfectants,  but  it  is  intensely  poisonous  and 
must  be  used  with  caution.  No  puddles  of  the 
solution  should  be  left  from  which  the  birds  may 
drink  when  they  come  into  the  l)uilding,  and  tab- 
lets of  this  disinfectant  must  on  no  account  be 
left  where  children  can  get  them  or  where  their 


SANITATION  29 

elders  may  mistake  them  for  sometliing  else,  e.  g., 
a  headache  remedy. 

For  disinfecting  buildings  the  mercuric  chloride 
should  be  applied  in  a  solution  of  one  to  five  hun- 
dred (one  ounce  to  four  gallons  of  water)  and  four 
times  as  much  common  salt  (one  ounce  to  the 
gallon)  should  be  used  with  it.  The  solution 
should  be  applied  as  hot  as  can  be  handled  with  a 
spray  pump.  After  the  surface  is  dry  it  is  a  good 
precautionary  measure  to  apply  the  disinfectant 
a  second  time  and  to  follow  as  directed  hereto- 
fore with  the  spray  of  whitewash,  covering  the  in- 
terior, walls,  ceilings,  roosts,  nests  and  floors. 
The  ordinary  whitewash  is  very  satisfactory  for 
this  purpose;  ''government"  whitewash  may  be 
preferable,  but  as  the  interior  should  be  white- 
washed at  frequent  intervals,  there  is  no  particu- 
lar advantage  in  having  a  whitewash  of  great 
lasting  qualities. 

Theie  are  a  great  number  of  disinfectants  that 
may  be  used  in  solution  for  disinfecting  poultry 
liouses,  but  certainly  none  are  superior  to  the 
coal  tar  disinfectants.  Formalin,  for  example,  is 
exceedingly  irritating  to  the  eyes  and  respiratory 
passages  of  the  one  doing  the  spraying.  Potassium 
permanganate  needs  to  be  applied  in  almost  sat- 
urated solution  to  be  effective,  and  thus  becomes 
expensive.  A  solution  of  copper  sulphate  is  not 
fatal  to  all  parasites.  Crude  petroleum  leaves  tlie 
building  unsightly  and  the  odor  persists  unduly 
long,  and  so  it  is  with  many  others. 

Of  the  coal  tar  disinfectants,  crude  carbolic  acid 
perhaps  stands  at  the  head  on  account  of  its  low 
cost,  however,  it  is  quite  variable  in  composition. 
It  should  be  used  in  five  per  cent  solution,  and 


30  POULTRY  DISEASES 

may  be  mixed  with  the  whitewash  and  applied  at 
the  same  time;  thus  saving  one  operation.  Use 
two  pounds  of  the  crude  carbolic  acid  to  each  five 
gallons  of  the  whitewash.  Cresol,  another  of  the 
coal  tar  products,  gives  satisfactory  results  in 
two  per  cent  solution  (one  pint  to  six  gallons  of 
water).  Pure  carbolic  acid  is  rather  too  ex- 
pensive for  this  sort  of  disinfection ;  if  used,  a  five 
per  cent  solution  (one  pint  to  two  and  one-half 
gallons  of  water)  should  be  employed.  Kreso 
and  Kreso  dip  (Parke,  Davis  &  Co.,  Detroit) ; 
Zenoleum  (Zenner  Disinfectant  Co.,  Detroit) ; 
Liquor  Cresolus  Compositus  (U.  S.  P.) ;  Creolin 
(Pearson) ;  and  many  other  disinfectants  may  be 
substituted  for  the  crude  carbolic  acid. 

Heat  is  one  of  the  most  reliable  of  disinfectants. 
It  may  be  utilized  in  poultry  house  disinfection 
in  the  form  of  a  flame  from  a  gasoline  blow  torch. 
Every  portion  of  the  walls,  ceiling,  floor,  roosts, 
nests,  boxes,  etc.,  must  be  carefully  flamed. 

This  method,  although  tedious,  is  effective.  Used 
with  ordinary  care,  it  is  devoid  of  danger  to  the 
oi:)erator  or  building. 

Disinfection  of  Yards.— A  complete  disinfection  of 
j)oultry  yards  and  runs,  that  is,  a  destructicui  of  all 
the  disease  germs  and  parasites  with  which  it 
may  be  contaminated  by  an  infected  flock,  is 
scarcely  possible  by  the  ordinary  means  employed 
in  poultry  house  disinfection.  Fortunately  it  is 
seldom  necessary. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  the  germs  of  nearly 
all  diseases,  and  the  eggs  of  nearly  all  internal 
parasites  of  poultry,  are  eliminated  in  the  dejecta 
(feces)  of  affected  birds,  the  danger  from  con 
laminated  runs  will  be  better  appreciated,  and 
with   the  i-ealization  Hint  each  mature  hen  pro- 


SANITATION  31 

(luces  nearly  one  hundred  pounds  of  manure  per 
year,  the  importance  of  the  yards  as  a  factor  in 
the  spread  of  disease  is  seen  to  be  very  great. 

The  problem  of  having  clean  (non-infected) 
yards  for  poultry  can  be  solved  only  by  a  change 
of  grounds  from  time  to  time.  As  mentioned  here- 
tofore, the  movable  poultry  house  offers  many 
sanitary  advantages.  Plowing  or  spading  a  yard, 
thus  exposing  surface  layers  of  the  soil  to  the  dis- 
infecting action  of  the  sunshine,  and  keeping  the 
birds  ol¥  it  for  a  season,  offers  the  most  practical 
means  of  disinfecting  it. 

Where  the  construction  of  the  poultry  buildings 
are  such  as  preclude  a  change  of  location,  the  two 
yard  system  can  in  most  cases  be  installed.  It 
offers  many  advantages :  while  one  yard  is  being 
used,  the  other  may  be  plowed  and  a  crop  grown. 
This  may  be  a  crop  upon  which  the  birds  may  be 
turned  for  half  an  hour  each  evening  to  allow  them 
a  feed  of  green  forage. 

In  any  system  of  yards  where  the  area  of  the 
grounds  is  small  for  the  number  of  birds,  the  j^ard 
should  receive  frequent  attention  at  the  hands  of 
the  cleaner.  If  the  yard  is  grassed,  and  the  grass 
is  short,  it  should  be  swept  weekly,  gathering  the 
manure  in  piles  and  carting  it  away,  as  street 
cleaners  do.  A  yard  that  is  bare  of  vegetation 
can  be  cleaned  in  the  same  way,  even  more  easily 
and  effectually.  This  will  lengthen  the  "sanitary 
life"  of  a  yard  to  many  times  its  duration  without 
such  cleaning. 

Immediately  surrounding  the  poultry  house 
there  should  be  a  strip  of  gravel  on  which  the 
birds  may  be  fed,  •  and  on  which  they  will  spend 
much  of  their  time,  to  the  very  great  saving  in 
contamination  of  the  yard.    The  feeding  ground, 


32  POULTRY  DISEASES 

of  course,  should  be  cleaned  (usually  by  sweeping) 
frequently,  and  it  may  be  thoroughly  wet  down 
with  a  disinfectant  in  case  of  a  serious  ontlu"eak 
of  infectious  disease. 

Disposal  of  Sick  and  Dead  Birds 

A  strict  adherence  to  the  rules  of  sanitation 
would  require  that  the  well  birds  be  removed 
from  the  buildings  and  enclosures  in  which  sick 
birds  are  found,  or  in  which  birds  have  died  of 
disease,  and  that  tiiey  be  not  returned  until  after 
thorough  disinfection  of  the  building  and  grounds. 
Such  a  jDrocedure  is  not  often  practicable  and  the 
poultryman  is  left  the  alternative  of  removing 
the  sick  or  dead  birds  from  the  flock  to  prevent 
as  far  as  possible  an  extension  of  the  infection. 

"Whenever  an  ailing  bird  is  discovered  in  any 
flock  it  should  be  isolated  immediately.  Do  not 
wait  to  discover  what  is  the  matter  with  it, 
whether  it  is  an  infectious  disease  or  a  disease  at 
all,  or  to  decide  as  to  it's  treatment.  Remove  it 
from  the  well  birds  first  and  decide  upon  further 
measures  afterward.  The  same  directions  apply 
with  equal  force  to  the  finding  of  dead  birds 
among  the  well  ones.  Remove  the  carcass  imme- 
diately and  unless  there  is  conclusive  evidence 
that  death  was  not  due  to  disease,  disiiifeet  the 
place  where  it  has  lain. 

Sick  birds  should  be  placed  l)y  themselves, 
where  they  will  not  be  molested  by  other  birds 
or  animals.  They  should  be  given  as  comfortable 
quarters  as  possible  and  be  disturbed  only  for 
treatment.  Unless  the  poultryman  is  very  posi- 
tive that  he  knows  what  ails  the  sick  bird,  and 
what  means  should  be  taken  to  prevent  others  in 


SANITATION  33 

the  flock  from  acquiring  the  same  disease,  he  will 
usually  find  it  best  to  call  a  veterinarian  and 
leave  the  matter  with  him,  particularly  is  this 
true  if  there  are  a  large  number  of  birds  on  the 
premises  or  if  the  flock  be  one  of  high  value,  be- 
cause of  pure  breeding. 

Immediately  after  the  removal  of  a  dead  bird 
from  the  flock  the  poultryman  should  satisfy  him- 
self as  to  the  cause  of  its  death.  If  it  is  obviously 
due  to  accident  or  if  it  is  due  to  some  disease 
already  recognized  as  present  in  the  flock  such 
action  should  be  taken  as  the  conditions  seem  to 
warrant,  but  if  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  what  has 
occasioned  the  death  a  careful  autopsy  should  be 
held.  Since  a  postmortem  examination  ordi- 
narily means  very  little  to  one  without  at  least 
some  fundamental  training  in  pathology,  the 
poultryman  will  ordinarily  find  it  advantageous 
to  take  the  dead  bird  to  his  veterinarian  for  ex- 
amination. This  should  be  done  immediately,  be- 
fore the  changes  incident  to  decomposition  have 
masked  the  lesions  which  disease  may  have 
produced,  or  before  parasites  that  may  have 
caused  death  have  changed  their  location  or  es- 
caped from  the  body. 

Mode  of  Performing  Autopsy.— Lay  the  bird  on  its 
back.  With  a  sharp  knife  open  the  abdominal 
wall,  commencing  close  to  the  anus,  passing  the 
knife  forward  between  the  ribs  and  breastbone 
to  a  point  just  back  of  the  "wishbone"  (clavicle). 
In  like  manner  open  the  left  side,  being  careful 
not  to  injure  any  of  the  organs  in  the  cavities. 
Now  grasp  the  sternum  or  breastbone,  forcing  it 
forward,  and  it  will  break  so  that  it  will  be  easy 
to  remove  it.  This  will  lay  the  cavities  open  so 
that  all  organs  can  be  observed,  as  illustrated  and 


34  roULTRY  i)isi-:.\si-:s 

named  in  Tlate  1,  tu  wiiicli  rclcr  for  rurtluT  de- 
scription. 

The  final  disposal  of  carcasses  of  birds, 
whether  dying  from  known  or  unknown  causes 
should  be  carefully  attended  to.  The  habit  of 
throwing  dead  birds  onto  the  nearest  manure  pile 
or  into  an  unoccupied  field  cannot  be  too  severely 
condemned. 

Among  many  people  there  is  a  belief  that  if  the 
])ody  of  a  person  that  has  died  is  not  pro])erly 
})uried,  the  spirit  of  the  departed  will  haunt  its 
living  relatives  and  if  they  do  not  heed  its  warn- 
ings, bring  great  disaster  to  them.  If  poultry- 
men  entertained  a  similar  belief  regarding  the 
disposal  of  dead  birds  it  would  save  them  much 
loss  from  disease  and  parasites  among  their 
flocks.  The  carcass  of  a  bird  that  has  died  of  an 
infectious  disease  or  of  a  parasitism  may  be  the 
means  of  infecting  grounds  and  spreading  dis- 
ease among  the  flock  many  months  later,  or  por- 
tions of  it  may  be  carried  to  neighboring  farms 
with  disastrous  results  to  neighboring  flocks. 

The  dead  birds  found  in  a  flock  should  bo 
l)urned  whether  or  not  they  have  died  of  conta- 
gious disease,  for  even  if  they  have  died  of  some 
cause  other  than  disease  the  chances  are  that 
they  harbor  intestinal  parasites  which  are  capa- 
ble of  being  spread  from  the  carcass  to  live  birds. 
Where  time  cannot  be  taken  to  ]n-oi»erly  burn 
the  dead  birds  they  should  be  buried  and  buried 
deeply,  so  that  they  cannot  be  dug  up  by  dogs, 
skunks  or  foxes,  and  so  that  worms  may  not 
carry  infection  from  the  carcass  to  the  surface  of 
the  ground. 


SECTION  III 

External  Parasites 

More  than  thirty  species  of  external  parasites 
infest  birds ;  their  economic  importance  is  very 
great;  fowls  heavily  infested  with  any  of  them 
are  nnprofitable  and  many  of  the  kinds  of  ex- 
ternal parasites  are  so  injurious  as  to  kill  the 
infested  birds. 

It  is  necessary  to  know  something  of  the  life 
history  of  these  parasites  and  their  habits  to  in- 
telligently treat  their  parasitisms.  This  in- 
formation is  given  as  briefly  as  possible  in  the 
following  pages : 

The  external  parasites  atfecting  birds  consist 
of  lice,  which  infest  all  ages  and  breeds;  scab 
parasites,  producing  scaly  legs;  the  air  sac  mite, 
which  is  a  modified  scab  parasite  and  infests  the 
air  sacs;  the  cliigger  (chigoe  or  jigger)  or  red 
mite,  a  great  pest  in  the  hot  summer  months;  a 
distinct  bird  flea;  the  chicJien  hug,  which  in  many 
respects  resembles  the  common  bedbug,  and  the 
ring  ivorm.     In  all,  seven  different  classes. 

LICE  OF  BIRDS 

This  embraces  a  group  of  biting  lice,  their 
bodies  are  flat  and  their  mouth  parts  are  ar- 
ranged for  biting  and  cutting.  They  live  upon 
feathers,  epidermis  and  secretions  of  the  body  of 
their  host.  As  may  be  noted  in  Fig.  2,  the  mouth 
parts  are  located  just  back  of  the  antennse  and 
are  not  always  visible.  The  antennsp  or  feelers 
consist  of  five  articles  or  joints  each.  The  thorax 
in  some  s]iecies  is  long   and   narrow,    in    others 

35 


36 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


short  and  glolmlar.  They  are  provided  with 
three  pair  of  legs  which  are  attached  to  the 
thorax.  The  free  extremity  of  tlie  legs  is  pro- 
vided with  two  liooklets  or  claws  which  euablo 
them  to  hold  on  to  their  host.  The  body  and  legs 
may  be  covered  with  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of 
hair  or  bristles. 

The  lice  of  birds  are  placed  under  the  follow- 
ing genera:  Menopon,  Goniodes,  Goniocotes, 
Lipeurus,  Docophorus  and  Nirmus. 


Fig.  2  Fig.  3 

Fig.    2.     Menoi'on    Biseriatum 

A,  Head  provided  with  mouth  parts  for  biting,  feelers 

(antenna;)    and  eyes.      B,    legs   attached   to    the 

thorax.      C,    abdomen. 

Fig.  3.     Menopon   Pallidum 

A,    Head.      13,    thorax    provided   with    three    pairs    of 

legs.      C,    abdomen    with    hairs. 


Lice  of  Chickens 

Menopon  biseriatum  (the  large  chicken  louse). — This  is 
the  largest  louse  found  upon  chickens.  It  is  about  one-twelfth 
of  an  inch  in  length.  It  is  light  in  color.  Fig.  2  illustrates 
this  louse  much  enlarged;  the  short  mark  at  the  right  shows 
tj^e  actual  length  of  this  louse.  This  parasite  is  common  on 
the  heads  of  young  chickens. 

Menopon  pallidum  (the  small  chicken  louse). — This  louse 
Is  illustrated  in  Fig.  3  and,  as  may  be  seen,  is  smaller  than 
the  M.  biseriatum.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  this  louse 
is  the  more  common  of  the  two  and  is  a  source  of  considerable 
trouble.  It  may  spread  from  chickens  to  other  animals  and 
birds. 


EXTERNAL   PARASITES 


37 


Goniodes  dissimillia.— This  is  a  rather  large  louse  and  is 
apparently  rare.  The  head  is  subquadrate,  the  thorax  short 
and  narrow  and  the  abdomen  large  and  globular. 

Goniocotes  hologaster. — The  head  is  nearly  quadrate,  the 
thorax  narrow  and  the  abdomen  short  and  globular.  Fig.  4 
illustrates  this  species. 

Lipeurus  infuscatus. — This  is  another  louse  that  may  infest 
chickens.  It  has  been  studied  in  the  author's  laboratory  and 
has  also  been  reported  by  Osborn  as  occurring  in  Iowa.  How- 
ever, it  is  not  very  common.    Fig.  5  illustrates  this  louse. 

Lipeurus  infuscatus. — This  louse  is  long  and  slender.  The 
front  part  of  the  head  is  rounded,  the  thorax  a  trifle  narrower 
than   the  head  and  the  abdomen  is  long  and  thin. 


Fig-  4 


Fig.  6 


Fig.   S- 

Fig.   4.     GoN'iocoTEs  Holog.-vster 

A,   Mouth  parts.      B,   antennae.      C,   booklets  on   free  extremity   of  leg. 

Fig.    5.     Lipeurus    Infuscatus 

A,   Mouth  parts.     B,  abdomen.     Drawing  to  right  of  bead  indicates  actual 

size. 

Fig.  6.     Goxiodes  Stylifer 

A,    Mouth    parts.      C,    antennae    (feelers).      C,    legs.      Drawing    to    right    of 

head    indicates    actual    size. 


Lice  of  Turkeys 


Goniodes  stylifer. —  This  is  the  common  turkey  louse.  Its 
head  is  well  rounded  in  front,  rather  square  cut,  with  scallops 
behind;  the  thorax  is  narrow  and  the  abdomen  large  and 
globular.     Fig.   6   illustrates   this   louse. 

Lipeurus  polytrapezius. —  This  is  a  long,  slender  louse,  with 
two  or  three  bristles  extending  from  each  segment  of  the 
abdomen.  Its  head  is  well  rounded  in  front  and  the  thorax 
is  rather  broad   and  long. 

Lice  of  Ducks 

Menopon  obscurum. — The  head  is  crescent-shaped  in  front 
and  the  abdomen  has  dark,  lateral  bands.  It  is  dark  fawn 
colored. 


38  POULTRY   l)ISl":.\Si:S 

Lipeurus  squalidus. — The  head  is  narrow  and  somewhat 
elongated  in  front.  There  are  six  hairs  on  the  front  part  of 
the  head.     This  louse  is  common  in  some  localities. 

Lice  of  Geese 

Lipeurus  jejunus. — A  slender,  pale,  yellowish-white  louse. 
It    is   probably    universally    distributed. 

Trinoton  continuum.— This  is  a  fairly  large  louse,  covered 
with  few  hairs.     It  is  common  on  geese. 


l"u;     ;.      I.ii'icrnrs    I5.\c"i;.i's 

.\.   Mouth  |i;uts.      I),  antenn.-i.-.     (",  1  iis.      Drawitiir  to  rijtlit  of  liend  iiulic.Tti.* 

actual    size. 

I'lG.    8.      Kggs   or   XiT   OF   THE   (loNiooEs   Stylifer    (dreatlv    Magnitied) 

.\,    Kf-'g    ccmeiittd    to    tlu-    barhs    of    the    featlier. 

Lice  of  Pigeons 

Lipeurus  baculus. — This  is  the  conuuou  louse  of  the  pigeon. 
It  is  long,  slender,  light-colored  and  the  abdominal  segments 
are  provided  with  two  or  three  hairs  on  each  side.  Fig.  7 
illustrates  this  parasite. 


Life  History  of  Lice 


The  females  of  lice  are  slightly  larger  than  the  males. 
They  lay  oval,  white  or  whitish-yellow  eggs  (nits),  and 
securely  cement  them  to  the  barbs  of  the  feathers.  This  Is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  8.  When  the  eggs  hatch  they  break  open 
at  the  end  or  a  small  cap  is  lifted  from  the  end,  in  much 
the  manner  that  a  chick  escapes  from  the  egg.  The  young 
have  much  the  same  shape  as  the  adults  and  are  ordinarily 
considerably  lighter  in  color.  The  males  are  usually  less 
numerous  than  the  females.  If  conditions  are  favorable  the 
eggs  hatch  in  from  ten  days  to  three  weeks,  and  the  lice  live 
for  a  considerable  time,  several  months  under  favorable  con- 


EXT  LUMINAL  PARASITI^S  39 

ditions.  During  their  development  they  moult  frequently, 
sometimes  as  often  as  ten  times,  becoming  slightly  darker 
with  each  molt. 

Lice  breed  with  great  rapidity;  it  has  been  com- 
puted tliat  the  ofthpring  of  a  single  pair  would 
reach  the  enormous  total  of  125,000  individuals 
in  the  third  generation,  which  may  mature  in 
eight  weeks ! 

Effects  of  Louse  Infestation 

Chicks  hatched  in  the  incu])ator  are  free  from 
lice  and  stay  so  imtil  placed  with  lousy  hens  or 
chicks,  or  in  quarters  infested  by  lice.  Lice  pro- 
duce mucli  irritation.  The  effect  of  large  num- 
bers upon  birds  is  quite  marked.  The  lousy  birds 
scratch,  pick  at  the  feathers,  show  signs  of  being 
drowsy,  may  refuse  to  eat,  and,  in  growing  birds, 
the  body  development  or  growth  is  interfered 
with. 

Young  chicks  infested  with  lice  often  sit 
around,  moping,  with  wings  hanging  down,  and 
in  a  week  or  two  may  die.  For  this  reason 
brooder  chicks  should  thrive  better,  grow  faster, 
and  are  freer  from  many  ailments  than  chicks 
hatched  by  the  hen.  It  has  been  said  that  a  lousy 
bird  will  have  more  of  a  tendency  to  wallow  in 
the  dust  than  one  not  so  infested. 

The  effect  upon  older  birds  is  not  so  severe 
as  upon  younger  ones,  but  is  noted  in  conditions 
of  flesh  and  in  the  production  of  eggs.  The  irri- 
tation is  sometimes  so  severe  that  hens  desert 
their  nests.  Their  combs  may  become  dark  or 
black.  Birds  unable  to  rest  day  or  night,  become 
emaciated  and  die. 

To  tind  the  lice,  part  the  feathers  and  the  lice 
will  be  found  running  over  the  skin  or  base  of 
the  feathers.    A  favorite  location  for  lice  is  under 


40  POULTRY  DISEASES 

the  wings  where  tlie  temperature  is  warm ;  but 
they  may  be  found  on  any  part  of  the  body  and 
at  all  seasons  of  tlic  year,  but  are  most  common 
in  the  hottest  months  of  the  year,  July  and  Au- 
gust. During  these  months  conditions  are  more 
favorable  for  their  propagation. 

Dealing  with  Louse  Infestation 

A  time-honored  and  very  effective  method  of 
treating  young  chicks  for  lice  is  to  grease  the  head 
and  neck,  under  the  wings  and  around  vent.  Blue 
ointment,  lard  and  sulphur,  salt  and  butter,  and 
various  other  greases  are  used,  but  none  is  more 
effective  than  lard  alone,  which,  although  tedious 
to  apply,  is  justified  by  the  excellence  of  the  re- 
sults obtained  from  its  application. 

Older  chickens  may  be  either  dusted  with  insect 
powder  or  dipped  in  a  preparation  for  destroying 
the  parasites  as  we  dip  larger  animals.  A  dust- 
ing powder  composed  of  equal  parts  of  pyreth- 
rum  and  sulphur  is  an  excellent  one  for  ridding 
birds  of  lice ;  tobacco  dust,  which  may  usually  be 
secured  at  any  tobacco  factory,  may  be  added 
to  the  combination  and  perhaps  will  increase  its 
efficiency.  This  powder  should  also  be  sprinkled 
in  the  dusting  places  of  the  infested  chickens. 
Dusting  places  should  always  be  provided. 

An  insect  powder  gun  is  needed  for  dusting 
the  birds.  This  may  be  secured  at  almost  any 
drug  store. 

If  it  is  the  wish  to  dip  the  birds,  prepare  a  five- 
per  cent  solution  of  creolin,  or  the  same  strength 
of  either  zenoleum  or  kreso  dip. 

The  Maine  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
gives  the  following  directions  for  freeing  birds 
from  lice : 


EXTERNAL  PARASITES  41 

When  the  treatment  of  individual  birds  for  lice 
becomes  necessary  some  kind  of  powder  dusted 
into  the  feathers  thoroughly,  seems  to  be,  on  the 
whole,  the  most  effective  and  advisable  remedy. 
The  powder  used  must  be  of  such  a  nature,  how- 
ever, that  it  will  be  effective.  There  are-so-called 
' '  lice  powders ' '  on  the  market  which  are  no  more 
effective  than  an  equal  quantity  of  any  inert  pow- 
dered substance  would  be.  It  is  not  only  a  waste 
of  money  but  of  time  as  well  to  use  such  pow- 
ders. At  the  Maine  Station  no  lice  powder  has 
been  found  that  is  so  satisfactory  as  that  origi- 
nally invented  by  Mr.  R.  C.  Lawry,  formerly  of  the 
poultry  department  of  Cornell  University.  This 
powder  (which  can  be  made  at  a  cost  of  five  cents 
per  pound)  is  described  as  follows  by  the  Maine 
Station : 

In  using  any  kind  of  lice  powder  on  poultry,  it  should  al- 
ways be  remembered  that  a  single  application  of  it  is  not 
sufficient.  When  there  are  lice  present  on  a  bird  there  are 
always  unhatched  eggs  of  lice  (nits)  present,  too.  The 
proper  procedure  is  to  follow  up  a  first  application  of  powder 
with  a  second  at  an  interval  of  four  days  to  a  week.  If  the 
birds  are  badly  infested  at  the  beginning,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  make  still  a  third  application. 

The  lice  powder  which  the  Station  uses  is  made  at  a  cost 
of  only  a  few  cents  a  pound,  in  the  following  way: 

Three  parts  of  gasoline  and  one  part  of  crude  carbolic 
acid,  90-95  per  cent  strength,  or,  if  the  90-95  per  cent  strength 
crude  carbolic  acid  cannot  be  obtained,  take  three  parts  of 
gasoline  and  one  part  of  cresol. 

Mix  these  together  and  add  gradually,  with  stirring,  enough 
plaster  of  paris  to  take  up  all  the  moisture.  As  a  general  rule 
it  will  take  about  four  quarts  of  plaster  of  paris  to  one  quart 
of  the  liquid.  The  exact  amount,  however,  must  be  deter- 
mined by  the  condition  of  the  powder  in  each  case.  The 
liquid  and  dry  plaster  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  stirred 
so  that  the  liquid  will  be  uniformly  distributed  through  the 
mass  of  plaster.  When  enough  plaster  has  been  added  the 
resulting  mixture  should  be  a  dry,  pinkish-brown  powder 
having  a  fairly  strong  carbolic  odor  and  a  rather  less  pro- 
nounced gasoline  odor.  Do  not  use  more  plaster  in  mixing 
than  is  necessary  to  blot  up  the  liquid. 

This  powder  Is  to  be  worked  into  the  feathers  of  the  birds 


42 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


affected  with  vermin.  The  bulk  of  the  application  should 
be  in  the  fluff  around  the  vent  and  on  the  lower  side  of 
the  body  and  in  the  fluff  under  the  wings.  Its  efficiency, 
which  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  lice  powder  known 
to  the  writer,  can  be  very  easily  demonstrated  by  anyone 
to  his  own  satisfaction.  Take  a  bird  that  is  covered  with 
lice  and  apply  the  powder  in  the  manner  just  described. 
After  a  lapse  of  about  a  minute,  shake  the  bird,  loosening 
its  feathers  with  the  fingers  at  the  same  time,  over  a  clean 


g^^:^.^^^^----^ '" 


I  NEXPENSIVR.      IH'RAHl.K     ."^PRAY      I't'MP 


piece  of  paper.  Dead  and  dying  lice  will  drop  on  the  paper 
in  great  numbers.  Anyone  who  will  try  this  experiment  will 
have  no  further  doubt  of  the  wonderful  efficiency  and  value 
of  this  powder. 

After  frooing  the  flock  from  lice  care  should  ))e 
exercised  tliat  a  reinfestation  is  not  brought  about 
by  the  introduction  of  lousy  birds. 

The  lousy  henhouse  sliould  be  thoroughly  and 
frequently  cleansed  and  the  walls  whitewashed. 


EXTERNAL  PARASrri'.S  43 

The  whitewash  should  contain  in  it,  some  para- 
siticide as  carbolic  acid  five  per  cent,  creolin  five 
per  cent  or  corrosive  sublimate  one  part  in  one 
thousand.  The  roosts  should  be  scrubbed  with 
boiling  water  and  after  drying  in  the  sun  should 
be  saturated  with  kerosene.  The  litter  and  straw 
should  be  removed  from  the  nests  and  burned  and 
one  inch  of  air-slacked  lime  placed  in  the  bottom 
of  the  nests  before  refilling  them  with  straw.  If 
the  henhouse  be  tightly  closed,  doors,  windows, 
cracks  and  all  openings,  and  thoroughly  fumi- 
gated with  sulphur  fumes  and  water  vapor  it  will 
aid  in  destroying  lice  or  other  parasites  that  may 
be  in  the  cracks  and  crevices,  and  difficult  to 
reach  with  whitewash.  Fig.  9  illustrates  a  cheap 
and  convenient  spray  pump  for  applying  the 
whitewash.  With  this  some  force  is  used  which 
drives  the  parasite-destroying  fluid  into  the 
cracks  and  crevices  not  possible  to  reach  where 
it  is  applied  with  a  brush. 

Scabies 

The  acarids,  or  mites,  as  they  are  commonly 
called,  are  exceedingly  common,  widely  dis- 
tributed and  of  great  economic  importance. 
They  are  eight-legged  parasites,  belong  to  the 
spider  family  and  are  so  small  as  to  be  nearly  or 
quite  in^4sible  to  the  unaided  eye,  though  readily 
discernible  with  the  aid  of  a  hand  lens  of  low 
magnif}dng  power. 

There  are  numerous  species  of  mites  that  in- 
fest birds.  Some  live  on  the  feathers  and  scales 
of  the  skin,  others  bore  into  the  skin  and  still 
others  inhabit  deeper  portions  of  the  body. 

There  is  one  form  of  scabies  called  depluming 
scabies  that  is  very  rare,  and  so  far  as  the  author 


44 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


knows  has  not  been  reported  in  this  country.  It 
affects  the  body  of  both  chickens  and  pigeons. 
The  one  on  chickens  is  the  Sarcoptes  laevei  va- 
riety galliuw  and  tlie  one  on  pigeons  is  the  Sar- 
coptes laevei  variety  columhcc. 

The  ascarids  parasitic  for  birds  are  placed  un- 
der the  following  genera:  sarcoptes,  cytodites, 
trombidium  and  dermanyssus.  Unlike  the  various 
genera  of  lice  the  scab  parasites  differ  greatly  in 
the  effects  wliicli  they  produce  and  therefore  a 
separate  discussion  of  each  one  will  be  given. 

Scaly  Legs— Scabies  of  the  Legs 

This  condition  is  very  common;  it  constitutes 
leg  scabies,  and  is  caused  by  a  parasite  called  the 
Sarcoptes  miitans  variety  galUnw. 

Sarcoptes  Mutans 

Description. — This  parasite  is  one  of  the  same  family  of 
scab  parasites  that  infest  horses,  cattle,  hogs,  sheep  and  cats. 
That  particular  branch  of  the  family  af- 
fecting chickens  is  distinguished  by  call- 
ing it  "variety  gallinae";  gallina?  being  a 
Latin  word  meaning  "of  the  chicken." 
Owing  to  the  small  size  of  the  parasite,  it 
is  often  called  a  mite.  Fig.  10  illustrates 
the  parasite  magnified  100  times;  the 
actual  size  of  the  parasite  is  shown  by  the 
small  dot  in  the  square  at  the  right  side 
of  the  drawing.  In  the  drawing  it  will 
be  noted  that  the  legs  are  short  and 
strong  and  that  its  mouth  parts  are 
arranged  for  biting  the  skin.  They  sub- 
sist upon  serum  that  exudes  at  the  point 
of  attack  and  forms  scales  or  scabs  (see 
Fig.  11). 

Life  History.— The  female  lays  her 
eggs  under  the  scabs,  where  in  about  ten 
days  they  hatch,  if  conditions  are  favor- 
able. The  larvae  or  young  mites  are 
provided  with  only  three  pairs  of  legs 
and  are  not  provided  with  sexual  organs. 
They  pass  through  several  molts  and  are  finally  developed 
into  the  adult  stage,  and  at  that  time  are  provided  with  four 
pairs  of  legs,  with  genital  organs  and  are  sexually  mature. 


iG.  10.  Sarcoptes 
Mutans  Variety 
Gallant 
A,  Mouth  parts.  B, 
short,  stubby  legs. 
C,  dot  indicating 
actual  size  of  para- 
site. 


EXTERNAL  PARASITES 


45 


The  tearing  off  of  the  scabs  favors  the  escape  of  the  para- 
sites, which  in  warm  weather  may  live  in  the  filth,  roosts, 
nests  or  other  parts  of  the  building  for  at  least  thirty  days, 
and  may  in  that  time  find  their  way  upon  other  birds  and 
infest  them,  causing  in  turn  scaly  legs  on  the  new  host.  Thus 
birds  become  affected  by  being  placed  in  infested  quarters,  or 
by  having  an  infested  bird  placed  in  the  same  lot  or  enclosure 
as  at  poultry  shows,  should  any  of  the  birds  there  be  infested. 

Symptoms. — This  parasite  attacks  chickens,  tur- 
keys and  cage  birds,  bnt  the  writer  has  not  ob- 
served it  infesting 
dncks  or  geese.  It  al- 
ways attacks  the  un- 
feathered  portion  of 
the  legs  above  the 
foot,  and  often  the 
upper  portion  of  the 
toes.  The  minute 
parasite  crawls  under 
the  scales  of  the  legs 
and  there  irritates 
the  tissue  by  attack- 
ing it  with  its  strong 
mouth  parts.  As  a 
result  of  this  irrita- 
tion a  vesicle  or  small 
blister  appears.    The 


Fig.    II.     Scaly    Legs    (Scabies) 

A,    Mass   of    scabs    due   to    dried    serum 

that    exudes    from    injured    part.      B, 

scale    of    leg    forced    up    and    out    of 

place  by  accumulation  of  dried  serum. 


blister  is  practically 

microscopic    in    size 

and    later    ruptures. 

This    small    quantity 

of  serum  dries  and  forms  a  minute  scale.    These 

scales  accumulate  until  later  large  scaly  masses 

appear.     Fig.  11  is  a  good  illustration  of  this 

condition. 

The  parasites  can  be  found  as  minute  white 
specks  in  the  serum  between  the  scab  and  leg. 
Both  legs  are  usually  affected  at  the  same  time. 


46  IHIUI/IKN"    I)1SI":AS1':S 

Itcliing  is  present  and  the  birds  may  })ii'k  at  the 
affe^jted  parts.  Itcliiiijj:  is  more  iuteuse  at  night. 
The  birds  may  become  weak,  sto])  laying  and  even 
die  from  the  effects  of  the  irritation  and  loss  of 
rest.^ 

Treatment:  Eradication. —  The  scabb}''  patches 
should  l)e  soaked  with  soai)y  water  till  the  scabs 
can  be  easily  removed  (this  will  take  time,  but  in 
valname  birds  it  will  pay;  if  insufficient  value  to 
justify  this  expenditure  of  time  and  labor,  kill 
the  bird(ipid  burn  the  affected  parts,  the  legs  and 
feet),  .uter  removal  of  all  scabs  possible,  scrul) 
thoroughly  with  kerosene  or  kerosene  emulsion, 
using  a  nail  brush  and  taking  pains  to  make  cer- 
tain that  the  liquid  reaches  the  deepest  parts. 

Kerosene  enndsioii  is  made  as  follows:  Kero- 
sene (coal-oil)  one-half  gallon,  common  soap,  two 
ounces,  water,  one  quart.  Dissolve  the  soa])  by 
boiling  in  the  water,  add  this  solution,  boiling 
hot,  to  the  kerosene  and  stir  with  an  egg-beater, 
or  otherwise  violently  agitate.  When  ready  for 
use  take  one  part  of  the  emulsion  and  add  to  this 
nine  parts  of  water. 

Lune-and-sulpliur  r/i/;.— This  well-known  ])ara- 
siticide  used  warm  and  scrubbed  thoroughly  under 
'the  scales  is  very  effective.  The  lime  and  sulphur 
dip  is  made  as  follows :  Unslacked  lime,  one-third 
of  a  pound,  sulphur,  one  pound,  w^ater,  four  gal- 
lons. This  mixture  should  be  boiled  for  two  hours 
and  the  amount  lost  by  evaporation  made  up  by 
adding  water.  The  lime  acts  as  a  solvent  for  the 
sulphur;  the  dissolved  sulphur  is  a  valual)le  i)ara- 
siticide. 

Commercial  Disinfectants. — Five  per  cent  solu- 
tion (in  water)  of  creolin,  zenoleum,  or  kreso  dip 


EXTERNAL  PARASITES  47 

is  also  effective.    These  solutions  should  be  used 
warm. 

Premises. — For  the  eradication  of  scab  para- 
sites from  infested  premises,  follow  the  directions 
given  for  ridding  premises  of  lice.    (See  page  40.) 

Air  Sac  Disease 

This  is  a  very  serious  malady  of  birds  that  is 
fortunately  rather  rare  in  this  country;  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly difficult  to  eradicate  once  it  has  become 
established  in  a  flock.  It  is  due  to  a  scab  parasite 
called  Cytodites  nudus,  synonyms  for  which  are: 
cytoleichus  sarcoptides,  Cnemidocoptes  mutans, 
and  air-sac  mite. 

Cytodites  Nudus 

Description. —  The  body  of  this  parasite  is  ovoid  in  shape, 
as  illustrated  in  Fig.  12.  It  is  whitish  in  color  and  is  pro- 
vided with  conical-shaped  mouth  parts,  through  which  it  sucks 
fluids  from  the  parts  infested.  The  legs  are  rather  short, 
conical,  and  in  both  male  and  female  all  are  provided  with 
suckers,  which  aid  in  moving  about  and  in  holding  on.  The 
legs  are  composed  of  five  articles  (segments  or  joints)  each. 
The  larva  has  three  pairs  of  legs  and  the  adult  four  pairs. 

Life  History. — The  ovigerous  female  lays  eggs,  as  a  rule, 
but  at  times  has  been  observed  to  deposit  eggs  ready  to  hatch 
and  even  young  larvae.  The  larvae  pass  through  changes 
similar  to  those  of  the  scaly-leg  mite  by  moulting  several 
times,  and  finally  reaching  the  adult  or  sexually  developed 
stage. 

S5miptoms. — The  air  sac  mite  inhabits  the  ab- 
dominal air  sacs,  the  air  spaces  of  bones,  and  the 
air  cells  (alveoli)  of  the  lungs  of  chickens  and 
pigeons.  If  only  a  few  parasites  are  present  no 
symptoms  may  be  noticeable,  but  if  they  exist  in 
large  numbers  their  effects  may  be  serious.  The 
l)ird  will  become  thin  in  flesh  and  even  emaciated, 
will  appear  dull,  stay  apart  from  the  others  of  the 
flock,  and  the  comb  will  usually  be  pale  in  color. 
The  wings  will  droop  and  there  will  be  labored 


48  POULTRY  DISEASES 

(heavy,  difficult)  breathing.  Coughing  may  oc- 
cur and  a  rattling  of  mucus  (rales)  in  the  trachea 
or  bronelii  may  often  be  lieard. 

Postmortem  Appearances. — By  a  careful  examina- 
tion of  the  infested  air  sacs  or  the  bronchi  and 
sacules  of  tlie  lungs,  the  mites  may  be  found  ap- 
pearing as  minute  white  specks,  about  the  size  of 
the  scaly  leg  parasites. 

For  the  specimen  from  which  the  accompanying 
drawing  (Fig.  12)  was  made,  the  author  is  in- 
debted to  Dr.  W.  B.  Mack,  Reno,  Nevada,  who  ob- 
tained it  from  a  flock  of  birds  examined  in  New 
York.  Besides  the  white  specks  moving  on  the 
surfaces  of  the  air  sacs,  whitish-yellow  points,  due 
to  the  irritation  caused  by  the  parasite,  may  be 
found.  The  bronchi  may  be  congested.  In  severe 
cases  inflammation  or  bronchitis,  and  even  pneu- 
monia, may  exist. 

The  air-sac  mite  has  also  been  reported  as  in- 
festing the  liver,  kidneys  and  other  abdominal 
organs,  in  which  cases  they  produce  yellowish, 
pearl-like  nodules  or  tubercles. 

An  outbreak  of  this  disease  in  Colorado  was  studied  by 
the  author  during  the  spring  of  1912,  in  which  several  birds 
in  a  flock  of  sixty  became  ill.  They  were  dull  and  weak, 
with  a  partial  loss  of  appetite  and  a  tendency  to  crane  their 
necks  when  they  tried  to  swallow,  became  poor  in  flesh  and 
after  one  to  two  or  three  weeks  died.  The  comb,  in  most 
instances,  turned  black  shortly  before  death. 

On  autopsy  there  were  found  myriads  of  small,  yellowish- 
white  specks  over  the  abdominal  air  sacs,  lungs  and  trachea. 
These  specks,  when  examined  under  the  microscope,  proved 
to  be  the  air-sac  mite  (Cytodites  nudus)  as  illustrated  in 
Fig.  12. 

Treatment. — It  is  said  that  sulphur  given  with 
tlie  feed  will  be  absorbed  and  eliminated  by  the 
lungs  in  sufficient  quantities  to  kill  the  parasites 
Ihat  infest  them,  but  this  is  doubtful.  A  better 
metliod  of  handling  an  outbreak  of  air-sac  disease 


EXTERNAL  PARASITES 


49 


among  birds  of  average  value  is  to  kill  all  the 
birds  in  an  infested  flock.  None  of  them  should 
be  sold,  as  they  may  find  their  way  into  other 
flocks  and  infest  them.  It  is  a  very  serious  disease 
and  one  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  rid  the  flock. 

Chigger  (Jigger)  or   Red  Mite  Infestation 

There  are  two  varieties  of  chiggers  found  in  this 
country,  one  is  the  Trombidium  holosericeum,  the 
other  the  Dermanyssus  gallince. 


Fig.    12  Fig.    13 

Fig.    12.     Cytodites    Nudus 
A,    Rostrum.       B,    ambulacrum.       C,    pedicle    of    am- 
bulacrum. 
Fig.     13.     Trombidium   Holosericeum 
A,   Mouth   parts.      B,   palpi.      C,   booklets  on    free  ex- 
tremity   of   the    leg.      D,    uterus    filled   with    eggs. 
Drawing    to    right    indicates    actual    size. 


Trombidium  Holosericeum 

This  parasite  is  tlie  common  cliigger  (jigger)  or  red  mite 
of  the   henhouse. 

Description. —  It  is  very  small,  as  indicated  by  the  mark 
by  the  side  of  Fig.  13.  The  body  is  oval  in  shape  (shape 
of  a  hen  egg) ;  it  is  provided  with  four  pairs  of  legs  in  the 
adult  state  and  three  pairs  in  the  larval.  The  distal  end  of 
each  leg  is  provided  with  two  booklets  or  claws,  with  which 
it  clings  to  objects  and  which  enable  it  to  crawl  about.  Its 
mouth  parts  are  conical  in  shape,  as  illustrated  in  the  draw- 
ing.    (See  Fig.  13.) 

Life  History. — Mites  lay  their  eggs  in  the  cracks  and 
crevices  and  filth  of  henhouses.  If  the  temperature  is  warm 
the  eggs  hatch  in  a  few  days  into  the  asexual,  six-legged  state. 
After  passing  through  a  few  moults  it  arrives  at  the  eight- 


50  POULTRY  DISEASES 

legged,  sexual  or  adult  state.  The  parasite  multiplies  very 
fast  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  summer,  July  and  August, 
when  conditions  are  more  favorable  for  their  propagation. 

Symptoms  of  Trombidium  Infestation. — By  means 
of  its  conical  mouth  parts,  referred  to  above,  it 
wounds  the  skin  and  sucks  blood.  The  engorged 
parasite  is  blue  to  red  in  color,  depending 
upon  the  quantity  of  blood  taken  into  the  digestive 
tract.  During  the  summer  of  1911  the  author 
observed  one  infested  flock  of  chickens  in  which 
the  affected  birds  showed  symptoms  similar  to 
birds  infested  with  lice.  They  became  unthrifty, 
ceased  laying,  sitting  hens  deserted  their  nests, 
all  exhibited  unkempt  appearance  of  the  feathers 
and  many  died.  Many  were  found  dead  under  the 
roosts  of  mornings.  Examination  of  the  nests, 
roosts  and  birds  revealed  millions  of  the  parasites. 
This  was  in  the  month  of  August. 

Treatment:  Eradication. —  The  same  treatment  as 
for  lice  will  be  found  very  effective.  Absolute 
cleanliness,  plenty  of  kerosene  repeatedly  applied 
to  the  roosts,  air-slacked  lime  on  the  floors,  and  in 
the  bottom  of  the  nests. 

Dermanyssus  Gallinae 

Description. —  By  referring  to  Fig.  14  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  body  of  this  parasite,  commonly  known  as  the  mite 
chigger,  differs  from  the  Trombidium  holosericeum  in  that 
it  is  ovopyriform  in  shape  instead  of  oval.  The  diameter 
of  the  posterior  third  is  greater  than  that  of  the  anterior 
third.  The  abdomen  and  legs  are  provided  with  rather  short 
bristles.  Its  mouth  parts  are  conical  in  shape  and  arranged 
for  injuring  the  skin  and  sucking  blood.  The  color  varies 
according  to  the  amount  of  blood  contained  within  the  in- 
testinal tract,  varying  from  yellow  to  a  yellowish-red.  The 
free  extremity  of  the  legs  is  provided  with  an  apparatus 
which  enables  them  to  hold  on  or  cling  to  objects  and  to  move 
about  rapidly. 

Life  History.— The  female,  like  the  female  of  the  preceding 
genus,  lays  her  eggs  in  the  cracks  and  crevices  and  filth  of 
the  floors  and  nests,  where  they  hatch  out  in  a  few  days,  if 
the  temperature  be  favorable.     The  young,  six-legged  asexual 


EXTERNAL  PARASITES 


i)i 


larva  goes  through  several  moults,  finally  maturing  into  the 
adult,  sexual,  eight-legged  parasite. 

Symptoms  of  Dermanyssus  Infestation. — This  par- 
asite lives  in  the  poultry  houses  and  dove-cotes, 
hiding  in  the  straw  of  nests,  cracks  and  crevices  of 
the  roosts,  and  other  places  of  concealment  in  the 
daytime.  It  is  the  most  common  and  most  injur- 
ious of  mites  and  is  present  in  every  poultry  house 
unless  it  is  kept  unusually  clean.  It  comes  out  at 
night  and  makes  its  attack.    Few  of  these  parasites 


Fig.    14  Fig.    IS 

Fig.   14.     Derm.\nyssus  Gallin^e 
A,    Conical-shaped    rostrum.      B,    palpus. 

Fig.    13.     PuLEx   Avium 
A,    Antennse.      B,   stylette.      C,    hooklets   on    free    extremity    of   leg. 

are  to  be  found  on  the  birds  (chickens  and  pigeons) 
in  the  daytime,  but  at  night  they  may  be  numerous. 
Birds  so  harassed  at  night  cannot  sleep  or  rest 
and  soon  become  emaciated.  The  laying  hens 
will  leave  their  nests  and  even  cease  laying.  Birds 
may  be  found  dead  under  the  roosts  in  the  morn- 
ings from  the  attacks  of  these  mites. 

These  parasites  may  also  attack  horses  and 
other  animals  kept  close  to  the  quarters  of  infested 
birds ;  they  cause  irritation,  the  animal  scratches. 


52  POULTRY  DISEASES 

rubs,  and  inia])le  to  rest  at  nii^lit,  becomes  thin 
in  flt'sli,  and  weak. 

Treatment. — The  same  as  lias  been  outlined  for 
lice  and  cliii^gers.     (See  pag'e  40.) 

FLEAS    AFFECTING   BIRDS 

But  one  genus  and  species  of  flea  is  parasitic 
upon  the  chickens.  It  is  known,  technically,  as  the 
Pulex  avium.  It  is  far  more  common  in  the  south- 
ern half  of  the  United  States  than  it  is  in  states 
further  north. 

Pulex  Avium 

Description.— This  is  the  common  chicken  flea.  It  resembles 
to  some  extent  the  flea  that  infests  dogs  and  man;  however, 
a  microscopic  study  shows  it  to  be  a  distinct  species.  Fig.  15 
illustrates  this  parasite.  It  is  provided  with  antennae  or 
jointed  feelers.  In  the  larval  state  its  mouth  parts  are  ar- 
ranged for  mastication  and  in  the  adult  for  wounding  the 
skin  and  sucking  blood.  It  is  flattened  laterally,  the  thorax 
being  a  trifle  deeper  than  the  head  and  is  provided  with  three 
pair  of  legs,  of  which  the  posterior  pair  are  longer  than  the 
others,  giving  the  insect  great  power  to  jump.  The  free 
extremity  of  the  legs  is  provided  with  two  booklets  or  claws. 
In  color  the  chicken  flea  is  light  to  dark  brown. 

Life  History. The   female   lays  about  twenty  brown,   oval 

eggs  in  some  dirty,  dusty  place,  such  as  the  floor,  cracks, 
crevices  or  nests.  These  eggs  hatch  in  a  few  days  (six  to 
twelve)  if  the  temperature  be  warm,  and  from  them  come 
■  wormlike  larva;  composed  of  thirteen  segments  each.  The 
mouth  parts  are  arranged  for  mastication.  The  larval  stage 
lasts  about  eleven  days;  they  then  pass  through  a  pupa  stage 
in  a  tough  brown  cocoon.  The  pupa  stage  lasts  about  four- 
teen days,  when  the  six-legged  adult  flea  emerges  from  the 
cocoon. 

Chicken  Flea  Infestation 

Symptoms. — In  an  outbreak  of  flea  infestation 
studied  by  the  author  during  the  summer  of  1911, 
the  presence  of  the  fleas  in  the  flock  was  first  noted 
because  of  the  insects  attacking  persons  who  en- 
tered the  hen  house.  Investigation  revealed  the 
presence  of  fleas  in  large  numbers. 

It  is  noteworthy  in  this  outbreak  that  all  the 


EXTERNAL  PARASITES  53 

lice  and  chiggers  disappeared  from  the  flock,  al- 
tliougli  the  chickens  in  this  flock  had  been  troubled 
l>y  these  parasites,  more  or  less,  during  the  three 
years  preceding.  Although  fleas  irritate  the  skin 
and  suck  blood,  no  noticeable  etTect  on  these  birds 
was  noted  by  the  owner.  Perhaps,  because  it 
being  summer,  the  birds  were  largely  out  doors 
and  under  favorable  conditions  as  to  health. 
Symptoms  similar  to  those  produced  by  lice  have 
been  recorded  in  other  cases. 

Treatment :  Eradication. —  Dipping  the  hens  in 
any  of  the  following  solutions,  five  per  cent  creo- 
lin,  five  per  cent  kreso  dip,  or  five  per  cent  zeno- 
leum,  is  effective  in  ridding  the  birds  of  fleas  and 
preventing  their  reinfestation  for  a  short  time. 
A  dusting  powder,  used  as  directed  under  the  dis- 
cussion of  lice,  may  also  be  employed  with  suc- 
cess. Do  not  neglect  to  stop  reinfestation  by 
treating  the  premises  the  same  as  directed  for 
lice     (See  page  40.) 

TICK  INFESTATION 

The  chicken  tick  is  the  Argas  miniatus.  It  is 
not  common  in  the  United  States,  although  it  does 
occur  in  some  of  the  southern  states  and  in  Mex- 
ico. 

Argas  Miniatus 

Description. —  The  body  is  flat  and  thin.  It  has  an  over- 
reaching dorsal  surface  that  hides  the  mouth  parts.  The 
mouth  parts  are  provided  with  mandibles,  which  have  hook- 
like denticles  at  the  free  extremity  and  a  hypostome  provided 
with  six  rows  of  irregularly-arranged,  toothlike  denticles. 
With  this  apparatus  it  holds  on  to  its  host.  By  the  side  of 
this  apparatus  there  is,  on  either  side,  a  palpus,  an  articulated, 
fingerlike  structure  taking  the  place  of  antennae  as  found  in 
the  insect  parasites.  This  tick  is  a  blood  sucker.  The  en- 
gorged female  is  nearly  one-half  inch  long.  Fig.  16  is  a 
drawing  of  a  full-grown  female,  taken  from  a  hen  in  south- 
ern Texas. 


54  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Life  History. — The  engorged  female  drops  to  the  ground, 
from  the  hen,  and  finding  a  hiding  place  under  some  objert, 
lays  her  eggs,  which,  if  the  weather  be  warm,  hatch  in  a 
few  days  into  the  six-legged,  asexual  state.  Upon  gaining 
access  to  chickens  it  begins  to  draw  blood  and  molts,  finally 
reaching  the  eight-legged,  sexual  state.  It  is  now  ready  to 
again  reproduce. 

Symptoms  of  Infestation. — Large  numbers  of 
ticks  cause  trouble  similar  to  that  caused  by  num- 
erous lice.  The  parasite,  being  a  blood-sucker, 
robs  the  host  of  considerable  blood  and  causes  ir- 
ritation. The  birds  do  not  thrive,  sitting  hens 
leave  their  nests,  laying  hens  cease  laying,  young 


-/  'm 


jff^   \_.„.,,.i«lll      ■IIIIM,,,,,  J      ^ 

'■*       V ' „y 


Fig.    i6.     Argas    Miniatus  Fig.   17.     Acanthia  Inodora 

birds   make   ])iit   little   growth.     Badly   infested 
birds  may  die. 

Treatment. — Combat  the  parasite  with  sanitary 
measures,  as  outlined  for  the  prevention  of  lice, 
lice.     (See  page  40.) 

THE  BEDBUG  OF  POULTRY 

The  chicken  bug  or  dove  cote  bug  is  known  as 
the  Acanthia  inodora.  It  is  often  found  around 
unclean  roosts  and  dove  cotes.  It  is  closely  allied 
to  the  bedbug,  from  which  it  requires  a  micro- 
scopic study  to  differentiate  it. 


EXTERNAL  PARASITES  55 

Acanthia  Inodora 

Description. — Fig.  17  illustrates  a  spcciuicu  obtained  fi\;in 
an  infestation  in  Colorado.  It  will  be  noted  that  it  is  pro- 
vided with  long  antenna^,  which  possess  long  joints  or  articles. 
Its  head  is  rather  narrow  and  it  has  prominent  eyes.  The 
thorax  is  crescent-shaped  on  the  anterior  border  and  is  much 
wider  than  the  head.  It  is  provided  with  three  pairs  of  legs. 
Its  abdomen,  like  the  abdomen  of  the  louse,  is  segmented 
and  is  practically  destitute  of  hair. 

Life  History. —  The  Acanthia  inodora  lays  its  eggs  in  the 
filth,  where  they  soon  hatch,  if  the  weather  be  warm,  and 
rapidly  develop  to  the  adult  state. 

Symptoms  of  Infestation. — This  bug  is  quite  a 
pest  in  Mexico  and  some  parts  of  the  southern 
United  States.  At  times  they  are  found  in  great 
numbers  swarming  over  the  roosts  and  nests, 
specking  the  eggs  with  their  excrement,  attacking 
the  hosts  at  night  and  sucking  their  blood.  The 
conditions,  as  a  result,  are  the  same  as  is  the  case 
in  any  other  form  of  infestation  by  external  par- 
asites. 

Treatment. — Similar  to  the  preceding.  The 
chicken  bug  is  at  times  a  formidable  foe,  even  in- 
vading dwellings  and  proving  more  troublesome 
than  the  common  bedbug  {Cimex  lectularia).  They 
begin  to  appear  about  the  middle  of  April,  and  at 
times  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  chickens  entirely 
out  of  doors. 

The  bugs  may  live  for  many  months  on  the  filth 
about  a  dove  cote  or  henhouse  and  the  disinfection 
must  be  most  thorough  to  eradicate  them. 

FUNGI  AFFECTING  BIRDS 

Three  harmful  fungi  affect  chickens.  One  kind 
affects  the  mouth,  another  the  skin  and  the  third 
the  lungs.  They  are  more  or  less  common  in  this 
country. 


56  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Thrush— Aphtha — Sore  Mouth 

This  is  a  condition  affecting  tlie  mouth  and  is 
due  to  a  low-grade  fungus  called  the  Oidium  al- 
bicans (saccharoniyccs  albicans).  Tliis  consists 
of  hyi^lia)  (fine  tliread-like  processes)  which  in 
some  instances  show  well  marked  chains  of  cells. 
It  reproduces  bj'  forming  round  or  ovoid  spores. 

Symptoms. — Eberth  has  reported  a  case  in  a 
bird  that  was  emaciated  and  died  in  convulsions. 
On  the  inner  lining  or  mucous  membrane  of  the 
first  portion  of  the  esophagus  whitish  to  brown- 
ish yellow  deposits  adliering  to  the  mucous  sur- 
face were  observed.  These  were  found  to  be 
composed  of  the  spores  and  filaments  of  this 
fungus.  It  has  also  been  reported  as  occurring 
in  turkeys. 

Treatment. — If  the  patches  can  be  seen  it  is  best 
to  cauterize  the  area  with  stick  of  lunar  caustic 
(moulded  nitrate  of  silver).  Intestinal  antisep- 
tics are  also  indicated  such  as  are  given  in  otlier 
intestinal  disorders  as  fowl  cholera.  (See  page 
83.) 

Tinea  Favosa— Honey-Comb  Ringworm 

This  malady  is  due  to  another  low-grade  fun- 
gus, the  Achorion  schoenleinii.  The  fungus  some- 
what resembles  the  Oidium  albicans  appearing  in 
hyphge  or  threads  and  reproducing  by  spore 
formation. 

Symptoms. — This  disease  has  been  called  favus, 
baldness  and  white  comb.  It  is  a  disease  that  is 
highly  contagious  and  attacks  the  comb,  face  and 
neck.  If  not  treated,  but  allowed  to  spread  and 
go  on  uninterrupted,  it  may  later  extend  to  tlie 
body. 

The  disease  first  appears  on  the  comb  or  face 


EXTERNAL  PARASITES  57 

as  whitish  or  light-gray,  small,  roundish  patches, 
which  vary  from  the  size  of  a  millet  seed  to  a 
half-inch  in  diameter.  Later  these  patches  may 
coalesce  and  form  large  areas. 

The  diseased  area  is  covered  with  a  scale  which 
may  be  depressed  in  the  center  and  turned  up  at 
the  edges,  giving  it  a  cup-like  shape.  In  the 
course  of  four  to  six  weeks  the  crusts  may  be 
one-fourth  inch  in  thickness. 

The  feathers  become  dry,  erect,  brittle  and 
break  off  at  the  surface,  leaving  large  denuded 
areas.  A  disagreeable  odor  is  given  off  by  the 
diseased  areas  which  has  been  likened  to  that  of 
mouldy  cheese.  As  the  disease  progresses  the 
bird  loses  its  appetite,  becomes  gradually  ema- 
ciated, weakens  and  finally  dies. 

Treatment. — In  the  early  stage  this  disease 
yields  to  treatment  readily.  The  crusts  should  be 
soaked  with  soapy  water  containing  a  five  per 
cent  solution  of  creolin,  liquor  cresolis,  kreso  dip, 
carbolic  acid,  or  similar  antiseptic.  The  fluid 
should  find  its  way  to  every  part  affected.  The 
premises  should  be  disinfected  as  for  lice  or  other 
parasites. 

Pneumomycosis— Aspergillosis 

The  third  fungus  disease  affecting  birds  is  usu- 
ally due  to  the  Aspergillus  fumigatus,  an  organ- 
ism similar  to  the  common  green  molds.  It 
affects  the  lungs  and  is  discussed  under  "Diseases 
of  the  Organs  of  Respiration."     (See  page  145.) 


SECTION  IV 

Internal  Parasites 

Parasites  infesting  the  intestinal  canal  of  fowls 
are  harbored  by  most  fowls,  and  serions  infesta- 
tions by  these  parasites  are  by  no  means  rare. 
These  parasites  are  commonly  spoken  of  as  worms. 
Other  internal  parasites,  such  as  gapeworm  and 
air-sac  mite,  while  not  so  common  as  the  intestinal 
worms,  are  by  no  means  unknown,  and  have  the 
same  possibilities  of  serious  infestation. 

Intestinal  parasites  in  small  numbers  infest  all 
fowls  without  doing  perceptible  harm,  but  there 
is  always  the  possibility  that  conditions  for  their 
propagation  may  become  so  favorable  as  to  turn 
the  mildest  infestation  into  a  devastating  para- 
sitism. Indeed,  this  very  thing  has  occurred  num- 
berless times,  and  not  a  few  flocks  have  been  en- 
tirely destroyed  by  it.  The  death  of  any  bird  from 
the  effects  of  internal  parasites  should  be  looked 
upon  with  apprehension. 

Internal  parasites  may  be  classed  under  four 
orders,  as  follows :  Nematodes,  or  round  worms ; 
Cestodes,  or  flat,  ribbon-shaped  segmented  worms ; 
Acanthocephala,  or  thorn-headed  worms;  and  the 
Trematoda,  or  the  flat  leaf-like  worms,  called 
flukes. 

IMPORTANT  ROUND  WORMS 

These  are  the  commonest  of  internal  parasites ; 
they  may  be  found  in  the  ceca  of  nearly  all  fowls, 
and  usually  in  other  portions  of  the  bowel.  When 
numerous  they  may  seriously  interfere  with  di- 
gestion and  lessen  nutrition,  and  by  their  irrita- 

59 


60  POULTRY  DISEASES 

tion  of  the  intestine  cause  a  stubborn  diarrhea. 
Rarely  they  become  so  plentiful  in  the  intestine 
as  to  wholly  obstruct  it. 

The  round  worms  include  four  important  in- 
ternal parasites  of  birds;  the  large,  round,  in- 
testinal worm ;  the  small,  round  intestinal  worm ; 
the  gizzard  worm;  and  the  gapeworm,  besides  a 
number  of  rare,  or  for  other  reasons,  unimportant 
worms,  all  of  which  will  be  described  in  turn. 

Ascaris  Inflexa 

This  parasite,  sometimes  called  the  Heterakis 
persp'iciUinn,  is  commonly  known  as  the  large, 
round  worm.  It  is  very  common,  having  been 
found  by  the  author  in  twenty-four  out  of  eighty- 
seven  autopsies. 

Description. — This  intestinal  parasite  is  round  in  sliape  and 
wliitisli-yellow  to  wliite  in  color,  varying  from  one  to  two 
inclies  in  lengtli.  Tliere  are  two  sexes,  male  and  female,  the 
female  being  considerably  the  larger.  Fig.  18  shows  the 
actual  size  of  the  male  and  the  female  specimens  from  which 
this  drawing  was  made.  Some  few  specimens  are  much  larger 
than  the  ones  shown. 

Life  History. —  The  Ascaris  inflexa  reproduce  by  laying 
eggs,  microscopic  in  size,  which  pass  out  to  the  ground  with 
the  feces.  Other  birds  become  infested  by  drinking  or  eat- 
ing food  contaminated  or  soiled  with  the  excrements  of  in- 
fested birds.  In  this  way  one  infested  bird  introduced  into 
the  flock  may  spread  the  disease  to  all  the  other  birds  in 
the  flock. 

Symptoms  of  Infestation. — Tliese  parasites  harm 
the  liost  by  ingesting  food  during  its  digestion 
by  the  host,  thus  robbing  it  to  a  certain  extent. 
A  few  worms  may  produce  no  noticeable  effect 
upon  the  health  of  the  bird,  but  if  present  in  large 
numbers  they  cause  serious  trouble.  It  has  been 
found  that  the  poison  or  excremontitious  (waste) 
matter  given  off  by  these  and  other  intestinal 
worms  is  absorbed  and  has  a  deleterious  consti- 


EXTERNAL  PARASITES 


61 


tiitional  effect,  similar  to  that  of  like  infestations 
by  parasites  in  the  larger  animals  and  in  man. 

At  times  the  worms  are  found  in  large  masses, 
partially  obstructing  the  bowel,  causing  constipa- 
tion, and  possibly  irritation  sufficient  to  set  up  in- 
flammation. There  may  be  a  loss  of  appetite, 
unthrifty  condition,  unkempt  appearance  of  plum- 
age, dullness,  languor  and  drooping  wings,  ema- 
ciation, loss  of  color  from  the  comb  and  mucous 
membranes  followed  hv  death  in  a  few  weeks. 


Fig.    1 8  Fig.    19  Fig.    20 

Fig.    18.     Asc.\Ris    Inflex.\    (natural    size) 

A,  Female.     B,  male. 

Fig.    19.     Heterakis  P.^pillosa    (natural   size) 

A,    Female.      B,   male. 

Fig.     20.     Heter-\kis     Papillosa,    He.\d    Extremity     (magnified) 

A,   Mouth  parts.     B,  esophagus. 

By  careful  examination  of  the  contents  of  the 
digestive  tract  of  the  birds  killed  for  food  pur- 
poses the  poultry  raiser  may  keep  informed  as 
to  whether  this  form  of  parasitism  is  present  in 
his  flock.  If  these  worms  are  present  in  members 
of  the  flock  close  observation  will  occasionally  dis- 
cover them  passed  in  the  feces. 

Treatment. — It  is  necessary  to  keep  the  yard  and 
henhouse  clean,  lime  scattered  on  the  floor  and 
about  the  yard,  and  the  water  for  the  birds  kept 
in  a  clean  fountain  and  the  food  in  clean  troughs, 
made  for  the  purpose,  and  disinfected  daily,  and 


62  POULTRY  DISEASES 

so  constnicU'd  that  birds  cannot  step  into  them. 
If  at  all  possible,  birds  should  be  moved  upon  new 
ground.  The  parasite  eggs  in  the  droppings  re- 
n]j,)ved  from  tlie  henhouse  may  be  destroyed  by 
mixing  the  manure  with  unslaked  lime. 

Tlie  birds  may  be  given  one  teaspoonful  of  tur 
]jentine  followed  by  a  tablespoonful  of  olive  oil. 
If  the  crop  is  full  the  dose  of  turpentine  should 
be  doubled.  Five  to  ten  grain  doses  of  areca  nut 
is  a  good  treatment.  The  areca  nut  can  be  mixed 
with  soft  feed  and  fed  from  a  clean  trough;  it 
acts  as  a  cathartic  as  well  as  a  parasiticide.  One 
grain  doses  of  thymol  is  an  excellent  treatment 
for  round  worms.  Two  grains  of  santonin  for 
eacli  bird  is  likewise  an  effective  treatment. 

Heterakis  Papillosa 

This  is  another  very  common  worm  and  is  usu- 
ally found  in  the  cecum  or  blind  gut.  The  author 
has  found  it  present  in  about  fifty  per  cent  of  the 
adult  birds  autopsied  in  his  investigation  work 
among  poultry  during  the  past  four  years.  It  is 
spoken  of  as  the  small  round  worm  by  poultry- 
men. 

Description. —  This  worm  is  much  smaller  tlian  the  Ascaris 
inflcxa,  being  only  about  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  long. 
It  is  white  in  color.  Fig.  19  illustrates  the  male  and  female, 
natural  size.  Fig.  20  illustrates  the  head  parts,  magnified 
several  times,  and  Fig.  21  the  caudal  or  posterior  end  of 
the  male,  magnified  several  diameters. 

Life  History.— So  far  as  known  the  life  history  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  Ascaris  inflcxa.  While  the  latter  infests  the 
small  intestines  as  stated  above,  this  one  is  found  principally 
in  the  ceca  or  blind  gut. 

Symptoms  of  Infestation. —  AVhen  p  r  e  s  e  n  t  in 
large  numbers  the  small  round  intestinal  worm 
of  chickens  {Jleteralis  papUlosa)  produces  con- 
siderable irritation  and  results  in  an  unthrifty 


INTERNAL  PARASITES 


63 


coiiditioii  of  the  affected  bird.     It  robs  the  host 
of  nutrients,  as  does  the  Ascaris. 

Treatment.— Sanitary  measures  for  the  preven- 
tion and  eradication  of  this  parasitism  and  direc- 


FiG.    21.     Heterakis    Papillosa,    Tail   Extremity    (greatly   magnified) 
A,    Spiculse.      B,   preanal    sucker.      C,    papilla. 

tions  for  its  treatment  are  the  same  as  for  Ascaris 
inflexa.     (See  page  61.) 

Spiroptera  Hamulosa 

This  is  the  gizzard  worm  of  chickens.  Speci- 
mens have  been  sent  to  the  author's  laboratory 
from  Missouri  only. 

Description. —  The  male  measures  about  one-half  inch  in 
length  and  the  female  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch.  Fig. 
22  illustrates  the  worms,  natural  size. 

Symptoms  of  Infestation. — The  economic  signifi- 
cance of  this  parasitism  is  due  chiefly  to  the  loss 
of  weight  and  the  stunted  growth 
which  it  causes.  The  affected 
birds  become  anemic,  emaciated, 
extremely  lazy  and  have  a  raven- 
ous appetite.  The  worms  pro- 
duce nodules  in  the  walls  of  the 
gizzard.  The  birds  become  in- 
fested from  eating  food  contaminated  or  soiled 
with  the  excrement  of  infested  birds  or  by  taking 


j'% 


B 


Fig. 


22.      Spiroi'tera 
Hamulosa 
(natural    size) 
A,    male.      B,    female. 


64  POULTRY  DISEASES 

in  Youug,  immature  worms  tliroiigh  soiled  food 
and  water. 

Treatment. — 'IMie  treatment  is  difficult  owing  to 
the  fact  that  they  are  imhedded  in  tumefactions 
in  the  walls  of  the  gizzard.  Give  turpentine  and 
olive  oil  as  directed  for  the  treatment  of  Ascaris 
infiexa  infestations.  The  treatment  should  be  re- 
peated three  or  four  times  at  intervals  of  one 
week. 

Syngamus  Trachealis 

This  parasite  is  sometimes  called  tlie  Scleros- 
toma  syngamus,  and  popularly  the  forked  worn\ 
or  gapeworm.  There  is  another  worm  slightly 
larger  than  this  one  that  infests  the  bronchi  and 
trachea  of  ducks,  swans  and  geese.  It  is  called 
the  Syngamus  hronchialis. 

Description. — The    male    is    very    much    smaller    than    the 

female,  upon  which  it  exists  as  a  parasite.    Fig.  23  illustrates 

■  these   worms   in   copulation   as   they   are 

I  always  found.    A,  illustrates  a  section  of 

'  mucous  membrane.     B,  the  male,  which, 

it  will  be  noted,  is  much  thinner  than  the 

female  and  scarcely  one-fourth  inch  long; 

and    C,    the    female,    about    one    inch    in 

length.     The  mouth  parts  are  surrounded 

by  a  capsular  arrangement  by  which   it 

holds  firmly  to  the  mucous  membrane  of 

the  trachea  or  bronchi   (windpipe).     The 

mouth  parts  are  provided  with  chitinous 

Fic.    23.     Syngamus      teeth,  with  which  they  wound  the  mucous 

Trachealis  membrane;    from   this   wound  they   suck 

(natural    size)  blood. 

^'  ^"rtrache?"'"  Life  History.-The      female      produces 

B,  male.  C,  female.  eggs  which  escape  from  her  body  only 
after  she  is  expelled  from  the  host  and 
her  body  decomposed.  The  embryos  thus  escaping  from  the 
decomposing  and  disintegrating  female  are  taken  up  by  earth 
worms.  Thus,  chicks  drinking  contaminated  water,  or  eat- 
ing these  infested  earth  worms,  in  turn,  become  infested; 
or  if  the  chick  should  pick  up  an  expelled  female  containing 
the  mature  eggs,  the  embryos  would  be  liberated  in  the 
stomach  of  the  chick,  in  which  case  they  migrate  to  the 
air  sacs  and   air  passages  and  grow   to  maturity. 


INTERNAL  PARASITES  65 

Symptoms  of  Infestation. — Wild  as  well  as  tame 
birds  (chickens,  turkeys,  pheasants,  partridges, 
pea-fowl,  magpies,  black  storks,  starlings,  crows, 
parrots,  swifts,  woodpeckers  and  martins  all  have 
been  reported  as  having  become  infested)  are 
susceptible  to  gapeworm  infestation. 

The  poultryman's  trouble  is  usually  with  young 
chicks  and  turkeys.  The  small,  immature  gape- 
worms  or  eggs  containing  the  embryos  find  their 
way  to  the  intestinal  tract  of  the  young  bird  as 
described  above,  and  from  the  intestine  they  mi- 
grate to  the  trachea  (wind  pipe)  and  its  branches 
and  attach  themselves,  where,  by  growing  in  size, 
they  gradually  obstruct  the  passage  of  air  to  the 
lungs.  As  a  result,  the  bird  finds  breathing  dif- 
ficult and  after  a  while  gasps  for  breath,  extending 
its  head  high  into  the  air,  finally  becoming  as- 
phyxiated. Usually  a  lump  may  be  found  by 
feeling  along  the  trachea,  if  the  worms  be  lodged 
in  that  part  of  the  trachea,  which  is  palpable. 
A  definite  diagnosis  may  always  be  made  upon 
autopsy  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  worms 
in  the  trachea,  where,  if  present,  they  will  be  found 
in  pairs  attached  to  the  mucous  membrane. 

Prevention.— Hatch  the  eggs  in  an  incubator.  Do 
not  allow  the  chicks  to  run  out  in  wet  grass,  where 
they  may  find  earth  worms  or  contaminated  water. 
Feed  only  in  containers  which  are  constructed  for 
the  purpose  and  kept  clean. 

Treatment. — By  grasping  the  bird  in  the  left 
hand  and  forcing  its  mouth  open  a  doubled  horse 
hair  may  be  run  down  the  trachea  and  by  twisting 
and  again  withdrawing,  the  worms  may  usually 
be  dislodged.  Gentle  pressure  over  the  region  of 
the  mass  may  so  injure  the  worms  as  to  cause 
them  to  loosen  their  hold  and  be  expelled  by  the 


66  POULTRY  DISEASES 

bird  during  the  coughing  which  this  causes.  Care 
must  be  exercised  lest  the  trachea  be  injured.  A 
feather  from  which  all  barbs  except  the  tip  have 
been  removed  may  be  dipped  in  turpentine,  forced 
down  the  trachea,  and  when  the  tip  has  passed 
the  mass  of  worms  it  may  be  twisted  as  it  is  with- 
drawn. This  usually  results  in  their  removal.  By 
referring  to  Plate  1,  No.  34,  the  location  of  the 
opening  of  the  trachea  through  the  larynx  may  be 
seen. 

UNIMPORTANT   ROUND   WORMS 

There  are  other  round  worms  that  may  infest 
the  intestinal  tract,  but  which  have  not  come  un- 
der the  observation  of  the  author.  They  are  not 
common,  or  important,  to  the  poultry  industry. 
The  list  follows : 

Heterakis  DiSerens 

This  is  a  slightly  larger  species  than  the  Heterakis  papu- 
losa. Its  mouth  has  no  apparent  lips;  the  pharyngeal  bulb 
is  distinct;  there  are  two  unequal  spicula.  It  is  found  in 
the  posterior  portion  of  the  intestines  of  chickens. 

Heterakis  Compressa 

This  is  a  round  worm  of  about  the  size  of  the  Ascaris 
inflexa.  The  tail  ends  in  a  sharp  mucro.  It  is  found  In 
the   small  Intestines  of  chickens. 

Trichosomum 

Several  species  of  this  genus  have  been  reported  from 
various  parts  of  the  world,  but  have  not  been  observed  by 
the  author  in  this  country.  They  are  shaped  something  like 
the  old-fashioned  blacksnake  whip.  They  are  blood  suckers, 
and  in  the  adult  stage  live  in  the  small  intestine. 

Heterakis  Maculosa 

A  round,  white  worm  found  in  inte.slinal  vesicles  of  the 
pigeon.  The  female  is  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  and 
the  female  about  one  inch  long.     At  times  this  worm   is  a 


INTERNAL  PARASITES  67 

serious  menace  to  the  flock,  killing  many  birds.  The  symp- 
toms are  similar  to  those  produced  in  chickens  by  round 
worms. 

TAPEWORMS.     (Flat  Segmented  Worms.) 

Tapeworms  inhabit  tlio  intestinal  tracts  of  all 
species  of  birds,  animals  and  man.  More  than 
thirty  different  species  of  tapeworms  have  been 
recorded  in  poultry. 

Tapeworms  differ  from  round  worms,  in  that 
they  have  no  complete  digestive  tract,  are  flat  and 
segmented  and  have  no  distinct  sex;  that  is,  the 
male  and  the  female  are  combined  in  a  single  in- 
dividual (hermaphrodite).  The  tapeworms  all 
live  in  the  intestinal  tract,  in  their  adult  stage, 
and  absorb,  through  their  integument,  nutrients, 
taken  in  and  digested  by  their  host ;  thus  they  rob 
their  host  of  food  nutrients.  The  species  studied 
in  the  author's  laboratory  are  from  chickens.  The 
worm  is  divided  into  a  head,  neck  and  body.  The 
head  is  provided  with  four  suckers  and  in  some 
species  a  circular  row  of  booklets.  The  neck  in 
some  species  is  long,  in  others  short,  but  always 
unsegmented.  The  body  is  composed  of  segments. 
These  segments  grow  from  the  neck.  At  first  they 
are  short  and  narrow,  but  become  longer  and 
wider  as  the  distance  from  the  head  increases. 
At  varying  distances  from  the  head  the  segments 
become  mature,  that  is,  fully  developed  sexually, 
and  ready  to  propagate.  Each  segment  is  really 
a  separate  animal  and  is  a  hermaphrodite,  that  is, 
provided  with  both  male  and  female  generative 
organs.  Each  segment  impregnates  itself,  after 
which  the  eggs  are  developed.  As  soon  as  the 
segment  is  filled  with  fully  developed  or  mature 
eggs,  the  segment  detaches  itself,  passes  out  with 


68  POULTRY  DISEASES 

the  feces  and  falls  to  the  gruiuKl.  Tlius,  at  times, 
we  may  find  in  the  excrement  of  an  infested  bird 
the  segments,  white  in  color  and  possessing  the 
power  of  movement;  that  is,  it  contracts  and  ex- 
pands, showing  it  to  be  alive.  This  is  especially 
noticeable  if  the  segments  be  placed  in  water. 
Before  it  is  detached  each  segment  absorbs  its 
own  nutrients  through  its  integument.  This  nutri- 
ent consists  of  the  food  eaten  and  digested  by  its 
host  as  alluded  to  above.  New  segments  are  con- 
stantly developed  by  the  head  of  the  tapeworm, 
growing  down,  becoming  ripe,  i.  e.,  filled  with  ma- 
ture eggs,  and  detached;  if  not  interfered  with, 
this  process  goes  on  almost  indefinitely. 

Upon  disintegration  of  the  segments  shed  from 
the  worm,  and  passed  out  with  the  feces,  the  eggs 
become  scattered.  The  life  history  of  the  worm 
from  this  state  is  not  well  understood.  It  prob- 
ably has  an  intermediate  host,  by  which  the  eggs 
are  taken  up,  and  within  which  they  pass  through 
a  cystic  stage  and  form  embryos,  which  reach  the 
intestine  of  the  bird,  become  attached  and  develop 
to  the  adult  stage. 

The  larva  consists  of  a  head  with  its  fixation 
apparatus,  namely,  the  suckers  and  booklets,  if 
such  be  present  in  the  adult,  and  a  neck.  Having 
attached  itself  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  in- 
testines, it  now  absorbs  digested  food  and  begins 
to  develop  segments,  which  in  a  few  weeks  begin 
again  to  Jbe  shed  at  intervals,  containing  fully  de- 
veloped eggs,  which  number  several  hundred  in 
each  segment.  Under  proper  conditions,  each  ogs; 
is  capable  of  producing  a  single  tapeworm  as 
before. 


INTERNAL  PARASITES  69 

Taenia  Infundibuliformis— ^Tapeworm 

This  worm  is  sometimes  called  the  Choanotwnia 
infundihulwn  and  also  the  Drepanidotwnia  in- 
fundibuliformis. 

Description. — This  worm  varies  in  length  from  one  and 
one-half  to  three  inches.  Fig.  24  illustrates  a  mature  worm. 
Its  head  is  oval,  the  neck  short  and  the  segments  shorter 
than  wide.  The  head  is  provided  with  four  sucker-discs 
and  a  crown  of  from  sixteen  to  twenty  hooklets,  which  can- 
not be  seen  except  by  microscopic  examination.  The  anterior 
border  of  the  segments  is  a  trifle  shorter  than  the  posterior 
border,  giving  the  border  of  the  worm  a  serrated  aspect. 
The  male  and  the  female  genital  pores  irregularly  alternate. 

Life  History. — The  eggs  passing  out  to  the  ground  are 
taken  up  by  the  intermediate  host,  which,  according  to  Grassi, 
is  the  earth  worm.  Rovelli  claims  to  have  found  the  larval 
or  cystic  stage  in  the  house-fly. 

Symptoms  of  Infestation. — If  a  bird  be  infested 
by  large  numbers  of  tapeworms  it  is  robbed  of 
much  food,  as  related  above,  and 
it  becomes  unthriftj',   shows  an 
mikempt      appearance      of     the 
feathers  and  possibly  a  loss  of 
flesh.    As  a  result  of  the  irrita- 
tion produced  by  these  parasites 
there  is  a  loss  of  appetite,  de- 
rangement of  digestion,  catarrhal     ^^^  ^^    ^^^^^  j^. 
condition     of     the     bowel     and       ^"(naturaYS'' 
loss   in   egg  production.     Birds  a.  Head. 

n  ,  '  n  n  2,  segmented  body. 

live  to  SIX  months  oi   age  may 
harbor  adult  tapeworms.     This  tapeworm  often 
causes  the  death  of  the  infested  bird.    In  the  later 
stages  of  infestation  the  bird  appears  dull  and  a 
complete  loss  of  appetite  is  noted. 

Treatment. — Give  thirty  grains  of  epsom  salt 
dissolved  in  warm  water ;  follow  with  two  or  three 
teaspoonfuls  of  turpentine.  A  few  teaspoonfuls 
of  a  decoction  of  pumpkin  seeds  usually  rids  the 


70 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


l»ir(l  of  tapeworms.     This  shoiikl  l)o  followed  liv 

a  licapiiii^  toaspoonfnl  of  epsom  salt  or  a  tablo 

spoonful  of  olive  oil.    Powdered  areca  nut  is  also 

effective 

the  digestive  tract  of  worms 


Tlivuiol  in  one  grain  doses  is  said  to  rid 


Davainea  Tetragona 

This  is  the  parasite  that  causes  nodular  ta^nia- 
sis  (nodular  tapeworm  disease).  It  has  been 
observed  and  reported  as  occurring  in  some  of  the 

eastern  states  and  cans- 


B 


ISS^:!^ 


Fig.    25.     Nodular    T.en-iasis 
(tapeworm    disease) 
A,    Section   of   intestine   of   chicken 
(natural   size).      B,   nodules    (nat- 
ural size). 


ing  quite  a  loss  to  poul- 
try raisers. 

Fig.  25  illustrates  the 
nodules  as  they  are 
found  and  about  natur- 
al in  size.  This  is  from 
a  drawing  of  the  outer 
(serous)  surface  of  an 
intestine,  which  pre- 
sents a  nodular  appear- 
ance that  might  be  mis- 
taken for  tuberculosis. 
The  mucous  (inner)  surface  of  the  intestine  is 
similarly  elevated,  and  protruding  from  the 
nodule  into  the  itnestine  may  be  seen  a  portion 
of  some  of  the  worm.  In  later  stages  these 
nodules  may  show  ulcerations  on  the  mucous 
surface.  There  may  be  seen  in  these  nodules  a 
greenish-yellow  necrotic  material.  A  secondary 
invasion,  with  pus  germs,  may  take  place,  in  which 
case  pus  will  be  present.  Before  the  nodules  are 
formed  these  worms  maj'  be  seen  between  the  villi. 
The  occurrence  of  this  tapeworm  in  the  intes- 
tine is  similar  to  the  tapeworm  described  above 
[Twiiia  iufuiidibnliformis). 


INTERNAL  PARASITES  71 

Treatment.— The  treatment  should  ))e  the  same 
as  for  the  Tcenia  wfnndihiiliforuiis  (which  see), 
or  mix  with  the  feed  one  teaspoonfnl  of  powdered 
pomegranate  root  bark  for  every  fifty  adult  birds. 

Other  Taeniae 

Two  or  three  other  species  of  tapeworms  closely 
resembling  these  in  their  gross  appearance  have 
l)een  described,  but  judging  from  the  records  they 
do  not  appear  to  be  common.  Tapeworms  are 
also  found  in  the  intestinal  tract  of  ducks  and 
other  birds. 

THE  THORN-HEADED  WORMS 
(Acanthocephala) 

The  third  class  of  worms  listed  belong  to  the 
order  Acanthocephala.  The  body  is  cylindrical, 
but  they  are  not  provided  with  a  complete  diges- 
tive tract,  as  are  the  nematodes,  or  round  worms. 
They  have  transverse  markings,  and,  like  the  tape- 
worms, live  by  absorbing,  through  their  integu- 
ment, nutrients  eaten  and  digested  by  their  hosts, 
thus  robbing  them  to  a  certain  extent.  Further 
more,  when  present  in  great  numbers,  these  para- 
sites cause  digestive  derangements  and  emacia- 
tion of  their  hosts.  They  are  provided  with  a 
globe-shaped  proboscis,  armed  with  booklets, 
which  they  embed  in  the  mucous  lining  of  the  in- 
testines ;  thus  attached  by  their  heads,  their  bod- 
ies float  in  the  intestinal  contents. 

Echinorynchus  Polymorphus 

This  is  one  of  the  three  species  of  this  genus 
that  live  in  the  intestines  of  the  duck.  It  is  also 
found  in  the  goose. 

Description. The    Echinorynchus    polymorphus    varies    in 

length  from  one-fourth  to  one  inch.     The  body  is  orange-red 


72  POULTRY  DISEASES 

in  color.  It  has  a  neck-like  construction,  just  back  of  the 
hooked,  globe-shaped  proboscis.  Its  proboscis  is  provided 
with  eight  or  nine  rows  of  booklets. 

Life  History. —  This  worm  reproduces  by  laying  eggs.  The 
intermediate  host  is  certain  fish,  as  the  shrimp  and  cray 
fish.  Ducks  become  infested  by  eating  fish  infested  by  the 
larval  or  cystic  form.  This  parasite  is  probably  rare  in  the 
United  States. 

FLUKES  (Trematodes) 

The  remaining  group  of  worms  which  inhabit 
the  intestinal  tract  of  birds  belong  to  the  order 
of  Trematodes  and  are  commonly  known  as  flukes. 

The  flukes  of  birds  are  harbored  for  the  most 
part  in  the  intestinal  tract.  If  we  are  to  judge 
from  reports,  these  worms  are  exceedingly  rare 
in  this  country. 

Notocotyle  Verrucosum 

Perhaps  the  most  common  of  the  flukes  is  the 
Notocotyle  verrucosum.  Its  body  is  white  or  red- 
dish white  and  from  one-twelfth  to  one-fourth  of 
an  inch  long.  Its  body  is  an  oblong  oval  in  shape, 
narrow  in  front  and  rounded  behind.  It  is  found 
in  the  intestines,  principally  the  cecum  or  blind 
gut  of  chickens  and  ducks. 

No  serious  results  have  been  atti'il)uted  to  tlie 
flukes  of  poultry,  altliough  it  is  well  known  that 
they  cause  serious  maladies  in  other  animals. 
There  have  been  three  or  four  other  similar  worms 
described  which  closelv  resemble  this  one. 


■\ 


SECTION  V 

Diseases  of  the  Digestive 
Tract 

Birds  are  not  subject  to  the  manifold  ills  of  the 
digestive  system  that  prevail  in  higher  animals 
and  man,  at  least  the  list  of  digestive  ailments 
which  we  recognize  in  birds  are  not  so  numerous 
as  they  are  in  higher  animals.  Beginning  with  the 
anterior  portion  of  the  digestive  canal,  tlie  mouth, 
we  find  its  part  in  digestion  relatively  unimpor- 
tant compared  to  that  of  the  same  organ  in  mam- 
mals, and  its  ailments  correspondingly  fewer  and 
less  important. 

The  food  is  not  masticated  in  the  mouth  as  in 
higher  animals,  but  is  swallowed  whole,  passing 
into  the  crop,  where  it  is  softened  by  the  action 
of  the  fluids  secreted  by  that  organ  and  perhaps 
also  by  the  action  of  bacteria  swallowed  with  it. 
After  maceration  in  the  crop  is  accomplished,  the 
food  passes  into  the  proventriculus  (stomach), 
where  the  processes  of  digestion  are  carried  still 
further  by  the  secretions  (juices)  of  that  organ. 
The  thoroughly  soaked  and  softened  food  is  next 
received  into  the  gizzard  and  ground  (with  the 
pebbles — grit — always  present  in  that  organ)  to 
a  paste  by  the  action  of  its  strong  muscular  walls. 

From  the  gizzard  the  food  passes  into  the  small 
intestine,  where  digestion  is  carried  on  much  as 
it  is  in  other  domestic  animals,  by  the  action  of 
the  secretions  of  the  intestine,  liver  and  pancreas. 

Domestication  has  affected  the  feeding  habits 
of  birds  much  as  it  has  the  feeding  habits  of 

73 


74  POULTRY  DISEASES 

liorses.  In  llic  wild  state  birds,  like  horses,  oat 
most  of  t]ie  time,  Init  they  secure  their  provender 
but  slowh\  Under  domestication  they  are  fed 
nutritious,  highly  concentrated  food  in  a  readily 
accessible  form,  two  or  three  times  daily,  and  are 
required  to  exercise  but  slightly  to  get  it.  Fre- 
quent disturbances  of  digestion,  largely  due  in  one 
way  or  another  to  engorgement,  is  the  result. 

Obstruction  of  the  Beak 

This  condition  is  very  race.  Cases  have  been 
noted  in  which  an  object,  such  as  a  sunflower-seed, 
has  become  wedged  between  the  rami  (branches) 
of  the  inferior  maxilla  (lower  portion  of  the  beak), 
and  serious  trouble  has  resulted  from  this  pres 
sure ;  for  example,  paralysis  of  the  tongue,  inabil- 
ity to  eat,  starvation  and  death. 

A  bird  with  obstruction  of  the  beak  will  shake 
its  head  and  scratch  at  its  beak.  Upon  noticing 
such  symptoms  in  a  fowl  the  caretaker  should  ex- 
amine its  mouth  and  remove  tlio  obstruction, 

Pip 

Among  poultrymen  one  often  liears  of  ''pip"  as 
a  disease  of  fowls,  particiflarly  of  chickens.  It  is 
one  of  those  luimes  like  "hollow  horn"  or  ''loss 
of  cud,"  in  cattle,  which  signifies  no  specific  dis- 
ease or  condition,  ])ut  merely  a  sym|)toin  of  some 
ailment,  real  or  fancied. 

In  some  of  the  respiratory  diseases,  particu- 
larly in  roup  and  ])()x,  the  nostrils  may  be  closed 
by  an  exudate  and  the  birds  compelled  to  breathe 
through  the  mouth,  and  if,  as  is  usually  the  case, 
the  bird  has  an  abnormally  high  temperature 
(fever)  at  the  same  time  there  is  a  tendency  for 
the  mouth  to  become  verv  drv  and  the  mucous 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT    75 

membrane  may  crack  and  bleed.  Owing  to  its  dry- 
ness, the  epithelium  of  the  tongue  may  not  exfoli- 
ate normally,  and,  being  retained,  may  form  a 
transparent  "beak  or  horn"  on  the  end  of  the 
tongue.  This  dryness  of  the  mouth  and  the  re- 
sultant changes  are  what  is  known  as  pip. 

Treatment. — In  such  cases  the  treatment  con- 
sists in  the  first  place  of  measures  directed  at  the 
primary  cause;  that  is,  the  condition  which  i^ 
producing  the  dryness  of  the  mouth.  The  hard- 
ening and  drying  of  the  membranes  of  the  mouth 
may  be  relieved  by  the  application,  several  times 
daily,  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  glycerin  and 
water. 

If  cracks  and  ulcers  have  formed  they  should 
be  bathed  in  a  solution-  of  potassium  chlorate  and 
water,  twenty  grains  of  the  former  to  the  ounce 
of  the  latter.  This  is  best  accomplished  by  dip- 
ping the  bird's  beak  into  a  vessel  containing  this 
solution  five  or  six  times  and  repeating  every  hour 
or  two.  If  pus  has  formed  in  the  ulcers,  they  may 
well  be  cleaned  with  a  few  drops  of  hydrogen  per- 
oxide before  the  potassium  chlorate  solution  is 
used. 

Stomatitis— Sore  Mouth 

The  ulcerative  form  of  sore  mouth,  due  to  fungi 
(molds),  has  been  described  under  external  para- 
sites. (See  thrush,  aphtha,  page  56.)  Quite  fre- 
quently in  cases  of  avian  diphtheria  or  roup  we 
find  diphtheric  patches  in  the  mouth  and  over  the 
tongue,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  48.  This  is  described 
under  respiratory  diseases.    (See  page  151.) 

Simple  catarrhal  inflammation  of  the  mouth  is 
not  common.  It  may  be  caused  by  some  irritants, 
or  by  bacterial  (germ)  invasion  of  an  injured 
pari.  *l   ,1 


7^  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Treatment. — A  saturated  solution  of  boric  acid 
should  be  used  for  bathing  the  affected  parts.  If 
ulcers  are  present  they  should  first  be  cleansed 
with  full-strength  hydrogen  peroxide. 

Impaction  of  the  Crop— Crop  Bound 

Obstruction  of  the  crop  is  generally  due  to 
swallowing  bodies  that  cannot  pass  readily  from 
the  crop  through  the  second  portion  of  the  esopha- 
gus to  the  stomach  and  gizzard,  that  is,  to  an  ob- 
struction of  the  second  portion  of  the  esophagus. 
Hog  bristles,  small  feathers,  straw,  etc.,  are  usu- 
ally the  cause  of  the  obstruction.  Of  the  cases 
examined  in  the  author's  laboratory  some  have 
been  due  to  each  of  the  agents  named.  Two  in- 
cubator-hatched and  brooder-raised  chicks,  just 
beginning  to  feather,  were  given  potato  parings, 
after  which  they  died.  There  was  found,  in  each 
crop,  a  potato  paring,  extending  from  the  crop 
through  the  second  portion  of  the  esophagus  into 
the  stomach. 

By  referring  to  Plate  I  these  organs  and  their 
relations  can  be  seen. 

A  second  cause  of  impaction  of  the  crop  is  due 
to  low  vitality  of  the  bird;  as  a  result  of  acute 
disease,  e.  g.,  cholera,  or  from  improper  nourish- 
ment the  thin  muscular  walls  of  the  crop  may  be- 
come paralyzed  or  so  weakened  as  to  be  unable 
to  force  its  contents  onward  into  the  proventricu- 
lus. 

Treatment. —  Surgical  interference  is  the  only 
treatment  for  this  condition  likely  to  be  effective. 
Having  diagnosed  the  case,  it  is  not  difficult  to 
clip  away  the  feathers,  clean  up  the  surface  with 
mild  antiseptics  and  with  a  sharp  knife  open  the 
crop  and  remove  the  obstruction.    The  crop  and 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT  17 

the  skiu  should  then  be  sutured,  and  the  bird  al- 
lowed only  soft  food  for  a  week. 

"Where  the  obstruction  is  due  to  a  weakened  con- 
dition of  the  walls  of  the  proventiculus,  its  con- 
tents may  sometimes  be  forced  back  through  the 
gullet  and  out  of  the  mouth  by  careful  manipula- 
tion with  the  hands. 

Tympany  of  the  Crop  (Gaseous  Crop) 

This  is  due  to  a  gas-forming  germ,  which  sets 
up  putrefaction  of  the  contents  of  the  crop.  It  is 
usually  accompanied  by  an  inflammation  (catarrh) 
of  the  crop  which  interferes  with  its  normal  func- 
tion. Birds  have  been  noted  to  have  at  times 
enormously  distended  crops,  which,  upon  exam- 
ination, proved  to  be  filled  with  gas.  Usually 
these  crops  contain  very  little  feed.  This  condi- 
tion often  affects  young  chicks  as  well  as  older 
birds. 

Treatment. — Give  intestinal  antiseptics,  such  as 
one  part  of  carbolic  acid  to  two  hundred  parts  of 
water,  or  murcuric  chloride  (corrosive  sublimate), 
one  part  to  ten  thousand  parts  of  water,  or  sul- 
phocarbolates  compound. 

Immediate  temporary  relief  may  be  given  by 
liberating  the  gas  through  an  aspirating  needle 
or  a  small  canula.  The  crop  may  then  be  irri- 
gated, through  the  canula,  with  a  mild  antiseptic 
solution.  Follow  with  two  teaspoonfuls  of  castor 
oil  and  feed  sparingly  on  easily  digested  food. 

Enlarged  Crop 

The  crop  may  sometimes  become  very  much  en- 
larged, slack  and  pendulous.  This  condition  is 
mainly  due  to  injudicious  feeding. 

Pendulant  crop  causes  little  inconvenience  to 


78  POULTRY   D1S1':AS1':S 

the  bird  aud  is  incurable  except  by  resection  of  a 
portion  of  its  wall.  This  operation  is  simple  and 
easily  performed. 

Gangrene  of  the  Crop 

This  condition  has  been  observed  several  times 
l)y  the  author.  It  resulted  fatally  to  the  birds  af- 
fected in  all  the  cases  studied.  Upon  opening  the 
croj)  a  very  offensive  odor  is  noted,  the  mucous 
lining  will  be  found  in  a  necrotic  state  (sloughing) 
and  appear  as  a  dark,  sometimes  a  greenish,  case 
ous  mass. 

Treatment. — In  the  earlier  stages  there  may  be 
given,  in  the  feed  or  water,  salol,  subnitrate  of 
bismuth  or  sulphocarbolates  compound.  If  the 
condition  becomes  prevalent  in  a  flock,  the  runs, 
yards  and  henhouses  should  be  thoroughly  disin- 
fected or  the  birds  completely  changed  to  new 
grounds,  and  in  any  case  given  clean  food  and 
drink.  The  sick  should  be  separated  from  the 
well  birds  and  the  dead  should  be  burned. 

Catarrh  of  the  Crop 

Irregular  feeding,  a  distended  crop  and  irritat- 
ing and  indigesible  feed,  such  as  feathers,  putrid 
meat  and  irritant  chemicals,  may  be  mentioned  as 
causes  of  this  condition,  which  is  essentially  a 
more  or  less  chronic  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane,  lining  the  crop.  If  the  crop  be  over- 
distended  the  strain  on  the  muscles  may  be  so 
great  that  paralysis  results.  In  these  cases  there 
is  noted  a  crop  filled  with  a  pulpy,  soft,  more  or 
less  gaseous  mass. 

Treatment. — If  the  crop  be  distended  with  a 
dough-like  mass,  grasp  the  bird  by  the  legs,  hold- 
ing the  head  downward,  gently  press  out  the  mass, 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT  79 

then  by  introducing  water  tlirougli  the  mouth  and 
then  forcing  it  out  as  before,  the  crop,  in  this  way, 
may  be  washed  out. 

Give  bland  substances,  such  as  gruel  and  mild 
antiseptics,  such  as  salol,  subnitrate  of  bismuth 
or  sulphocarbolates  compound. 

Depraved  Appetite 

This  may  be  duo  to  a  disease  of  the  digestive 
organs  or  it  may  be  a  vice  learned  from  others. 
Hens  learn  to  eat  eggs  by  finding  them  broken  or 
be  seeing  an  egg-eating  hen  and  copying  as  a 
cribbing  horse  acquires  the  habit  from  his  mate,  or 
as  one  hog  may  learn  to  eat  chickens  from  seeing 
another  eating  one. 

Feather  eating  (plucking)  is  another  habit 
that  may  be  acquired  from  mimicry.  Obstruction 
of  the  gizzard,  lack  of  grit,  insufficient  or  unsuit- 
able food  and  catarrh  of  the  crop  are  factors  of 
greater  or  less  importance  in  causing  a  depaved 
appetite.  Kill  the  bird;  the  habit  cannot  be 
broken. 

Chicken  Cholera— Fowl  Cholera 

Fowl  cholera  is  caused  by  a  germ  {Bacillus 
avisepticiis),  and  is  a  blood-poisoning  (septice- 
mia). The  germ  is  rather  short,  plump,  and 
stains  at  the  poles  or  ends  deeper  than  the  mid- 
dle, with  aqueous  fuchsin,  hence  it  is  called  a 
polar-staining  bacillus.  Fig.  26  shows  the  germ, 
magnified  1,000  times.  This  drawing  was  made 
from  a  blood  smear  from  an  outbreak  among  tur- 
keys and  chickens,  which  was  one  of  several  out- 
breaks that  have  been  studied  in  the  author's 
laboratory.    The  large  objects  are  various  kinds 


80 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


of  blood  cells.     One  of  these,  a  white-blood  cell 
(phagocyte),  has  taken  up  one  of  the  germs. 

Mode  of  Spread. —  Birds  often  contract  this  dis- 
ease from  others  at  shows,  and  when  taken  back 
home  infest  the  remainder  of  the  flock  and  the 
premises,  or  a  bird  recently  purchased  from  an 
infected  flock,  or  eggs  from  an  infected  flock, 
or  chicks  recently  hatched  in  infected  sur- 
roundings, or  infected  droppings  carried  on 
the  feet  of  men  and  animals,  from  hen- 
houses where  the  disease  exists,  or  carried  by 

streams  or  irrigation 
ditch  water,  dried  and 
carried  by  the  wind  as 
dust,  or  carried  l)y  wild 
birds,  may  be  the  means 
of  introducing  this  dis- 
ease among  healthy 
birds.  Even  insects 
have  l)een  known  to 
carry  the  conlagion 
Buzzards  arc  connuou 
carriers  of  this  disease. 
The  germ  of  fowl 
cholera  retains  its  power  to  produce  disease  for 
weeks,  and  even  months,  about  premises  where  it 
has  occurred,  unless  they  be  thoroughly  disin- 
fected. The  germs  have  been  kept  in  test  tubes, 
experimentally,  for  two  years  and  still  ])roved  to 
be  virulent,  that  is,  still  capable  of  ]iroducing  dis- 
ease. It  resists,  for  a  long  time,  both  drying  and 
zero  weather. 

Cholera  maj^  affect  chickens,  turkeys,  ducks, 
geese,  pigeons  and  many  wild  birds.  The  period 
of  incubation  (the  time  elapsing  from  tlie  entrance 
of  ihe  germs  into  the  body  of  the  l)ii"(1  until  the 


Fig.  26.  Blood  Smear  from  Case 
OF    Cholera 

Sliowing  red  blood  cells,  tlironi- 
bocytes,  monoiuiclear  leucocytes, 
poIyniori)hoiuicIcar  iicuti-ophilcs 
and  many  of  the  polar  staininjr 
Rerms  (Bacillus  ar'iscf^licits)  of 
the    disease. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT  81 

appearance  of  the  first  symptoms  of  the  disease) 
is  given  as  from  twelve  to  forty-eight  hours. 

In  our  experimental  work,  in  which  the  virus 
(germ)  was  introduced  into  the  peritoneal  cavity 
this  period  was  six  to  twelve  hours ;  when  the 
virus  was  given  by  the  mouth  it  required  twenty- 
four  to  thirty-six  hours  to  produce  the  disease. 
The  birds  died  twelve  to  seventy-two  hours  later. 

Symptoms. — The  onset  of  this  disease  may  be 
so  sudden  that  its  signs  pass  unobserved,  and 
finding  the  dead  birds  in  the  nests  or  under  the 
roosts  may  be  the  first  notice  that  the  owner  has  of 
the  existence  of  disease  in  his  flock;  or  the  birds 
may  have  fowl  cholera  in  a  more  chronic  form 
and  live  for  six  to  seven  days. 

In  the  protracted  cases  there  is  noted  loss  of 
appetite,  great  prostration,  staring  feathers;  the 
bird  mopes  or  sits  around  with  tail  and  head  down, 
giving  so-called  ''ball"  appearance,  the  comb  is 
dark,  the  gait  swaying,  and  there  is  trembling, 
convulsions,  thirst,  and  severe  diarrhea,  with  pas- 
sages of  a  greenish-yellow  color.  There  is  high 
fever  and  the  bird  rapidly  becomes  emaciated. 

The  percentage  of  loss  in  the  flock,  if  |not 
treated,  is  very  great.  The  disease  spreads  rap- 
idly through  a  flock.  Pure-bred  birds  are  more 
susceptible  than  scrubs.  In  an  outbreak  of  cholera 
among  ducks,  studied  in  the  author's  laboratory, 
the  disease  progressed  very  slowly.  Only  one 
to  five  or  six  ducks  died  in  the  course  of  a  week 
in  the  flock  of  500. 

Postmortem  Findings.— Upon  opening  the  abdom- 
inal cavity  one  will  first  note  that  the  liver  is 
greatly  enlarged,  very  dark  in  color  and  tears 
easily  (inflammation,  congestion  and  cloudy  swell- 
ing) ;  we  have  found  livers  that  weighed  as  mucli 


82  POULTRY  DISEASES 

as  120  grams,  or  three  times  tlie  normal  weight. 
The  intestines  are  congested  and  contain  a  frothy 
material,  dark  in  color.  There  is  an  occasional 
hemorrhage  in  the  lining  (mucosa)  of  the  in 
testines.  The  spleen  may  be  enlarged  and  its 
contents  soft.  Small  hemorrhages  (petechia)  may 
be  found  in  the  heart,  its  coverings  and  other 
parts.  The  kidneys  are  dark,  enlarged  and  soft 
(active  and  passive  congestion  and  cloudy  swell- 
ing). The  blood  does  not  coagulate  readily  and 
is  found,  upon  microscopic  examination,  to  be 
teeming  with  the  germs  causing  the  disease  (Bacil- 
lus avisepticus). 

Case  Report  on  Fowl  Cholera 

A  dead  duck  was  sent  to  the  laboratory  from  the  outbreak 
referred  to  above.  The  anatomical  lesions  found  in  the  carcass 
were  as  follows:  Hemorrhagic  areas  in  heart  and  epicardium; 
inflammation  and  congestion  of  the  ceca,  and  congestion  of 
the  other  portions  of  the  intestines;  the  liver  enlarged, 
weighing  eighty  grams,  and  very  dark  in  color. 

Two  glycerin  agar  slants  were  inoculated  from  the  heart 
blood  and  from  the  liver.  Stained  smears  from  the  heart 
blood  showed  the  typical  i)olar-staining  BaciUus  avisepticus. 
Pure  cultures  were  obtained  from  the  inoculated  tubes.  A 
pullet  weighing  two  pounds  was  given  an  intraperitoneal  in- 
jection of  the  twenty-four-hour  agar-slant  growth.  Twenty- 
four  hours  later  she  appeared  sick,  showing  ruffled  feathers, 
loss  of  appetite,  dullness,  head  and  tail  down  and  temperature 
108.2  degrees  F. 

An  examination  of  the  blood  revealed  the  following:  Hema- 
globin,  90  per  cent;  erythrocytes,  2,520,000;  leucocytes,  6,000 
(hypoleukocytosis),  thrombocytes,  184,000.  The  differential 
count  showed:  eosinophiles,  37  per  cent;  neutrophiles,  2  per 
cent;  lymphocytes,  small,  52  per  cent,  large,  5  per  cent; 
mononuclear  lymphocytes,  4  per  cent;   mast  cells,  none. 

This  bird  died  at  the  end  of  sixty  hours.  At  the  autopsy 
there  was  noted  a  fibrinous  peritonitis;  some  petechia  on 
mucous  membranes;  the  liver  enlarged,  dark  and  weighing 
seventy-two  grams  (thirty-five  grams  is  the  normal  weight 
for  a  bird  of  the  size  of  this  one).  From  the  blood  the  germ 
was  isolated  in  pure  culture  as  before. 

[Ward  found  in  experimental  cases  of  fowl  cholera  there 
was  a  destruction  of  red  blood  cells  and  in  some  an  increase 
of  white  blood  cells   (leukocytes).] 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT  83 

In  describing  this  outbreak  among  ducks  the  owner  wrote 
in  part,  as  follows: 

"Regarding  the  success  I  have  had  in  tlie  treatment  of 
cholera  among  the  ducks  with  the  sulpho-carbolates  of  sodium, 
calcium,  zinc  and  copper,  I  will,  as  best  I  can,  give  you  an 
idea  as  to  how  the  results  and  the  conditions  under  which 
we  liad  to   work." 

"To  begin  with  we  had  a  large  number  (about  500)  to 
handle  and  had  to  send  away  for  the  tablets,  which  delayed 
us  in  beginning  the  treatment  of  the  disease,  and  of  course, 
conditions  were  pretty  bad  when  we  did  get  started. 

"Next  we  ran  into  a  long  stretch  of  cold  weather,  the  feed 
froze  up  nearly  as  soon  as  we  put  it  out  in  the  troughs 
if  it  was  moistened  and  the  drug  mixed  with  it,  same  thing 
happened  with  the  water,  so  we  were  sure  that  the  ducks 
were  not  getting  enough  of  the  sulphocarbolates.  However, 
the  death  rate  dropped  down  about  one-fourth  in  two  weeks. 
As  soon  as  the  weather  warmed  up  several  snows  fell  at 
intervals  of  about  a  week,  so  that  the  pens  were  wet  and  it 
was  hard  to  disinfect  them  and  difficult  to  keep  the  ducks 
from  drinking  the  water  that  stood  about  in  the  pens.  In 
this  way  they  avoided  getting  the  drug  that  was  dissolved  in 
the  water  in  their  drinking  fountains.  We  finally  got  around 
that  by  sprinkling  the  yards  heavily  with  some  coal-tar  dip, 
so  that  the  ducks  would  not  drink  this  water,  but  would  go 
to  the  fountains.  This  was  made  rather  expensive  for  the 
water  from  the  outside  would  run  into  the  pens  and  soon 
dilute  the  dip  already  out  so  that  the  ducks  would  soon 
be  drinking  this  water  again.  This  meant  more  dip,  and  the 
cost  of  the  dip  was  soon  an  important  item.  A  considerable 
quantity  of  the  sulphocarbolates  used  under  these  conditions 
was  wasted,  for  when  the  feed  or  water  would  freeze  we 
had  to  chop  it  out  of  the  troughs  and  thus  lose  some.  The 
cost  of  w^hat  we  used  amounted  to  seven  cents  per  duck. 

"If  we  let  up  using  the  drug  the  ducks  would  begin  dying 
again,  but  I  do  not  think  it  had  a  fair  trial  during  the  first 
part  of  the  treatment.  As  soon  as  the  weather  got  better 
the  death-rate  was  lowered,  and  now  I  believe  we  have  the 
disease  under  control.  Under  favorable  conditions  I  believe 
this  means  of  controlling  cholera  would  work  very  nicely. 
That  it  will  render  a  flock  immune  for  any  length  of  time  I 
rather  doubt.  I  gave  my  chickens  a  three  weeks'  round 
of  the  treatment  and  for  a  month  now  they  have  been  all 
right,  but  this  morning  I  noticed  a  few  of  them  acting  as 
if  they  were  in  the  cholera  business  again.  I  fed  a  few  of 
them  some  'medicated  charcoal'  that  a  poultry-food  firm  puts 
out  and  this  seemed  to  check  the  disease  and  put  them  back 
in  good  condition.  This  checks  the  diarrhea  they  have  within 
a  day  or  so  and  they  soon  get  well." 

Treatment:  Eradication. — The  germs  are  found  in 
the  discharge  from  the  bowel  and  are  caried  ou 


84  POULTRY  DISEASES 

tlie  feet  into  feed  and  water  lioiij^lis,  or  are  picked 
up  from  the  ground  with  tlie  feedstuff.  Birds 
should  be  fed  out  of  troughs  frequently  disinfected 
with  a  five  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  and 
the  water  they  drink  should  be  similarly  guarded. 
Sick  birds  should  be  immediately  removed  from 
the  flock  and  tlie  dead  ones  cremated.  The  hen- 
house and  nests  should  be  cleaned  thoroughly 
each  day  and  sprayed  with  whitewash  to  which 
sufficient  crude  carbolic  acid  has  been  added  to 
make  it  five  per  cent  of  the  whole,  or  creso,  zeno- 
leum  or  creolin  should  be  used,  of  the  same 
strength. 

A  type  of  spray  pump  convenient  for  applying 
this  whitewash  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  The  hen- 
house may  also  be  disinfected  with  formaldehyde, 
as  follows:  Close  tightly  all  doors,  windows, 
cracks  and  other  openings,  and  for  each  1,000 
square  feet  of  space  in  the  building,  use  twenty 
ounces  formalin  (forty  per  cent  formaldehyde) 
and  sixteen  ounces  permanganate  of  potash.  Place 
these  two  materials  in  a  vessel  and  place  in  the 
middle  of  the  room  and  leave  for  several  hours. 
The  yard  should  be  cleaned  every  day.  If  the 
yard  be  small  it  may  l)e  disinfected  by  covering 
it  with  straw  and  burning  the  straw. 

For  the  birds  intestinal  antiseptics  are  indi- 
cated; the  sulphocarbolates  compound*  lias  given 
us  b}^  far  the  best  results.  Other  intestinal  anti- 
septics are  hydrochloric  acid,  one  teaspoonful  to 
each  quart  of  water,  one  per  cent  of  copperas  and 
potassium  permanganate. 

The  following  is  an  account  of  three  of  the  tests  which  the 
author  made  of  the  30-grain  sulphocarbolates  compound  tab- 
lets. 

"One  flock  consisted  of  sixty  birds.     Several  were  sick  at 


♦Manufactured  by  the  Abbott  Alkaloidal  Co.,  Chicago. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT  85 

the  time  treatment  was  commenced,  and  four  had  died.  The 
discharge  from  the  bowels  was  of  a  greenish-yellow  color, 
somewhat  simulating  fowl  cholera.  One  tablet  was  dissolved 
in  a  pint  of  water,  and  this  fluid  mixed  with  bran  and  corn 
chop.  The  mixture  was  then  fed  in  clean  troughs.  In  this 
way  each  bird  got  approximately  one-half  grain.  This  was 
repeated  night  and  morning.  No  additional  birds  became 
sick;  only  two  of  the  sick  died;  and  the  rest  recovered. 

"Another  flock  consisted  of  175  baby  chicks.  As  soon  as 
these  birds  were  taken  from  the  incubator  they  were  fed 
the  unhatched  eggs  that  had  been  cooked  and  chopped.  This 
mixture  was  reported  to  possess  an  offensive  odor.  The  birds 
began  dying,  with  symptoms  of  diarrhea,  white,  pasty  vent; 
weakness,  dullness,  droopy  wings,  etc.;  one-half  the  flock 
died  before  treatment  was  commenced.  One-half  tablet  was 
dissolved  in  warm  water  and  the  bread  saturated  with  it. 
The  birds  immediately  quit  dying. 

"Still  another  flock  consisted  of  200  birds,  including  a  few 
turkeys.  Cholera  had  appeared  on  the  premises  the  fall  be- 
fore. The  outbreak  was  studied  in  the  field  and  in  the  labora- 
tory. The  cholera  germ  (Bacillus  avisepticus)  was  isolated. 
In  the  last  outbreak,  fourteen  birds  had  died  and  several 
were  sick.  Treatment  similar  to  that  described  above  was 
used.  Water,  containing  the  sulphocarbolates  was  kept  con- 
stantly before  them.  No  more  birds  were  taken  sick  and  no 
more  died  after  the  sixth  day." 

Vaccination  with  a  vaccine  made  from  the 
germs  producing  the  disease,  has  given  excellent 
results. 

Scholbe  states  a  serum  has  been  prepared,  but 
that  it  renders  immunity  only  for  about  two  weeks. 

Entero-Hepatitis  (Blackhead) 

This  is  essentially  a  disease  of  turkeys,  among 
the  young  of  which  it  is  quickly  fatal.  It  has 
practically  annihilated  the  turkey-raising  industry 
in  sections  where  it  was  formerly  profitable  and 
carried  on  extensively.  Although  the  turkey  is 
more  susceptible  to  blackhead  than  any  other  bird, 
serious  losses  among  chickens  sometimes  occur. 

Cause. — This  disease  is  claimed  by  Dr.  Theo. 
Smith,  formerly  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Indus- 
try, to  be  due  to  a  protozoon  (Ameha  meleagridis) 


86 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


inicroscoi)it'  in  size,  which  is  roiiiKl  in  the  diseased 
areas  in  tlie  eeea  (blind  pouclies)  and  liver  of  af- 
I'ected  birds,  which  are  chiefly  turkeys  and  rarely 
chickens.  Others  attribute  the  disease  to  a  coc- 
cidinni. 

Mode  of  Spread. — As  will  be  seen  later,  the  pro- 
tozoon  escapes  from  ulcers  in  the  ceca  and  passes 

out  with  the  fees. 
Food  or  water  con- 
taminated with  the 
excrements  carry 
the  disease  germ 
to  other  birds. 
Chronic  cases  (car- 
riers) in  older 
turkeys  or  chick- 
ens may  keep  the 
premises  infected 
for  a  long  time. 
These  germs  en- 
tei'ing  the  liver 
and  the  mucous 
membrane  lining 
the  ceca,  cause  in- 
flammation and  de- 
F.G.  .7.   enterohepatitis  in  a  turkev      o-eneration.      Usu- 

A,    Yellowish-white    necrotic    areas.       llus        " 

liver    weighed    452    grams,    nearly  ^Uv      tllG      CGCa      bC- 

one    pound.  *'         ■      a       ,     j     n        , 

come  mrected  first 
and  later  the  liver  is  imadcd  and  inflammation  of 
its  structure  ensues. 

Postmortem  Findings.— Upon  first  opening  the  abdominal 
cavity  one's  attention  is  attracted  by  the  enlarged  liver  with 
areas  of  dead  tissue  (caseation  necrosis).  Fig.  27  shows  a 
liver  about  three-fourths  natural  size,  weighing  nearly  one 
pound. 

The  ceca  (blind  pouches;  see  Plate  I,  No.  12),  one  or  both, 
are  noted  to  be  enlarged,  the  enlargement  is  usually  a  short 
distance  from  the  point.  Upon  opening  the  ceca,  ulcers  and 
areas   of   dead    tissue    (caseation    necrosis)    are    observed    in 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT  87 

the  mucous  lining.     There  will  also  be  noted  a  straw-colored 
fluid  (edema,  dropsy)   in  the  loose  tissue  about  the  heart. 

Fig.  28,  taken  from  an  area  in  the  edge  of  the  necrotic 
portion  marked  B.  in  Fig.  27,  illustrates  the  condition.  A 
illustrates  the  liver  cells  as  they  are  first  affected  (cloudy 
swelling) ;  B,  the  cells  farther  along  in  the  disease  process 
in  which  it  may  be  noted  that  the  nucleus  has  disappeared 
and  the  cell  is  disintegrating  (necrosis) ;  C,  the  congested 
vessels  (passive  congestion) ;  D,  white  blood  cells  (eosino- 
philes)  referred  to  above.  There  may  also  be  noted  in  these 
areas  giant  cells. 


A^^ 


^-B 


Fig.   28.     Cloudy    Swelling    Due  to   Enterohepatitis 
This    is    a    Section    from    "B"    in    Fig.    27    (magnified   900 

times). 
A,    Liver   cells    (cloudy   swelling).      B,   liver  cells   under- 
going    disintegration,     necrosis.        C,     congested     blood 
vessel.       D,    white    blood    cells,    eosinophiles    abundant 
in  this   disease.     E,   protozoa   causing  the   disease. 

Fig.  29  illustrates  a  giant  cell.  E,  protozoa  causing  the 
disease.  A  like  microscopic  examination  of  sections  from 
the  kidneys  indicates  that  poisonous  products  have  been  taken 
up  by  the  blood,  for  in  these  sections  we  find  degenerative 
changes    (congestion,   cloudy  swelling  and   focal  necrosis). 

Fig.  30  shows  a  microscopic  field  from  a  blood  smear  from 
a  turkey  affected  by  entero-hepatitis  with  the  disease.  It 
will  be  noted  that  there  is  an  intense  eosinophilia.  Fig.  31 
shows  a  field  from  a  portion  of  the  kidney,  in  a  state  of 
cloudy  swelling  and  focal  necrosis — evidence  of  absorbed  poi- 
sonous substance.  Fig.  32  shows  one  of  the  ceca  with  a  small 
ulceration  caused  by  the  protozoa. 

Symptoms, — Entero-liepatitis  is  most  common  in 
turkeys  between  the  ages  of  one  month  and  one 


88  POULTRY  DISEASES 

year,  altliongli  I  have  seen  the  disease  in  birds  that 
were  much  older.  Several  ontl)reaks  liave  been 
studied  in  this  Uiboratory,  Only  one  case  was 
found  in  the  hen.  It  has  been  reported  in  the  pea- 
cock. 


Fig.   29.     Section   of  the   Liver    (from   a    Case   of   Blackhead) 
a,    Protozoa   causing   the   disease,      b,   a   giant   cell. 

The  symptoms  are  not  manifest  till  the  disease 
has  progressed  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  bird 
is  first  noticed  to  be  dull,  later  the  wings  and  tail 
may  droop;  the  feathers  become  ruffled  and  the 
bird  sits  around  much  of  the  time ;  diarrhea  super- 
venes, the  discharge  being  of  a  greenish-yellow 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT 


color;  there  is  a  loss 
of  appetite;  the  bird 
grows  gradually 
weaker  and  usually 
dies  in  from  three  to 
ten  days  after  the 
first  symptoms  of  the 
disease  become  no- 
ticeable. In  the  cases 
that  run  longer  the 
bird  becomes  emaci- 
ated. A  blood  exami- 
nation shows  eosino- 
philia  to  be  present, 
he  head  may  or  may 
not  turn  purple.  From  the  cases  in  which  the 
head  turns  purjDle  the  disease  gets  its  name — 
blackhead. 

Report  of  a  Case  of  Blackhead 

Of  eleven  turkeys  of  the  flock,  six  had  died.     One  of  the 


Fig.  30.  Blood  Smear  (from  a  Case 
of    Blackhead) 

Showing  intense  eosinophilia.  a,  Red 
blood  cells.  b,  eosinophiles.  c, 
thrombocytes.  d,  lymphocytes.  e, 
mononuclear  leucocytes. 


Fig.    31.     Section   of   a    Kidney 

From     a    turkey    that    had    died     of    blackhead.       a,     Cloudy 

swelling.      b,    area    of    focal    necrosis. 

turkeys    was    brought    to    the    laboratory    for    further    study. 
The  turkey's  head  was  purple;   there  was  a  loss  of  appetite; 


90 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


.    32.     Cecim    Showing    Ulceration 
From  a  case  of  entcro-hepatitis   (blackhead) 
in  a  turkey, 
a,    Ulceration,      c,   blind   cnj   of  cecum. 


a  diarrhea  was  present  and  the  discharge  was  yellowish-green 
in  color.  A  blood  study  showed  the  following:  Hemoglobin, 
73  per  cent;  erythrocytes,  2,000,000;  leukocytes,  73,000.  Dif- 
ferential   count:    cosinophiies,    SO    per    cent;    neutrophiles,    1 

l)er  cent;  lymphocytes, 
H  per  cent;  mononu- 
lears,  1  per  cent;  mast 
cells,  1  per  cent.  The 
bird  died  and  an  autopsy 
was  held.  The  following 
is  a  summary  of  the 
findings: 

Necrotic  areas  in  the 
liver  measuring  up  to 
four  centimeters  (abort 
one  and  one-half  inches, 
in  diameter  and  of  a 
yellowish-green  color. 
Weight  of  the  liver,  '^'^2 
grams. 

Ulceration    of    one    ce- 
cum,    four     cm.      (about 
one   and    three-fourths 
inches)     from    the    cecal 
end  and  extending  three  cm.   in  length.     The  outer  surfaces 
of   the    ceca    showed  yellowish-green    coloration.     There   was 
edema  in  the  pericardial  region. 

Treatment.— Thorough  cleaning  of  henhouse  and 
yard,  followed  hy  earefnl  disinfection;  care  as  to 
feeding  and  watering,  and  intestinal  antiseptics 
are  indicated  as  recommended  for  fowl  cholera. 
Tlie  following  tablets  gave  the  best  results  in  our 
exi^eriments : 

Sodium  sulphocarbolate 1  part 

Calcium   sulphocarbolate    1  part 

Zinc  sulphocarbolate 2  ])arts 

Dissolve  one  tablet  in  each  quart  of  water.  This 
solution  can  ho  giNcn  ms  drink  or  used  to  mix  soft 
feed. 

Report  of  an  Outbreak  of  Entero-Hepatatis 

Treated  With  Sulphocarbolates 

Compound 

The  owner  of  a  flock  of  turkeys  in  which  a  number  were 
affected  with  blackhead  reported  to  the  author  on  the  use 
of  the  sulphocarbolates  compound,  as  follows: 


DISEASES  OF  THE   DIGESTI\'1<:  TRACT  91 

"Some  of  these  turkeys  were  too  sick  to  eat.  In  these 
cases  a  small  piece  of  the  tablet,  one-half  the  size  of  a  sweet 
pea,  was  dissolved  and  given  twice  a  day.  Nearly  all  of  the 
birds  so  treated  recovered." 

From  work  done  in  this  laboratory  and  from  the  foregoing 
report  and  similar  reports  from  other  sources,  the  author 
is  led  to  believe  that  a  bird  may  recover  if  properly  medi- 
cated, even  after  some  degree  of  damage  is  done  to  the  liver 
by  the  disease. 

Diarrhea— Enteritis— Dysentery 

The  most  devastating  form  of  diarrhea  in 
poultry  is  an  infectious  disease  due  to  a  bacterium 
and  to  a  protozoon,  and  commonly  called  ''white 
diarrhea."  It  affects  chiefly  chicks  less  than  three 
weeks  old  and  will  be  discussed  under  a  special 
head.  Under  this  head  I  shall  discuss  those  bowel 
ailments  not  due  to  any  one  specific  germ. 

A  condition  of  mild  diarrhea  is  chronic  in  many 
fowls  throughout  life.  In  these  cases  there  are  no 
symptoms  of  the  disease  other  than  the  softness 
or  fluid  condition  of  the  feces.  Though  this  con- 
dition is  probably  due  to  a  mild  form  of  indi- 
gestion and  the  birds  may  not  thrive  or  fatten  or 
lay  as  well  as  those  not  so  affected,  the  condition  is 
not  serious  and  ordinarily  the  poultr^Tiian  pays 
no  attention  to  it. 

It  is  when  the  soft,  pasty  or  liquid  excrement  has 
an  offensive  odor,  and  adheres  to  the  feathers 
about  the  vent,  staining  them  yellowish,  greenish 
or  brownish,  that  the  matter  becomes  serious  and 
interferes  with  the  health  of  the  bird.  Young 
stock  are  much  more  susceptible  to  diarrhea  from 
unfavorable  conditions,  of  which  the  commonest 
are  improper  food  and  exposure  to  cold,  than  are 
adult  birds. 

When  this  reaction  to  external  influences  (cold) 
or  when  the  irritation  from  indigestible  matter 
within  the  intestine  becomes  sever  enough  to  set 


92  POULTRY  DISEASES 

up  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the 
small  intestines,  it  is  termed  enteritis,  and  when  it 
extends  to  the  large  intestines  it  is  called  dysen- 
tery. In  both  conditions  there  is  an  increased 
tliirst,  loss  of  appetite,  high  fever  and  fluid  dis- 
cliarge,  and  in  the  latter  the  discharges  are 
streaked  witli  blood. 

Cause. — Mouldy,  putrid,  or  too  stimulating  food, 
drinking  water  which  contains  mucli  organic  mat- 
ter, and  lience  is  filthy  and  putrid,  and  exposure 
to  certain  unfavorable  atmospheric  conditions  are 
(•ontril)uting  factors,  as  is  also  the  injection  of 
irritant  substances,  such  as  lye,  paint,  spray-mix- 
tures, unslaked  lime,  etc. 

Along  with  diarrhea  due  to  these  causes  may  be 
mentioned  a  like  condition  sometimes  caused  by 
the  presence  in  the  intestinal  tract  of  certain  spe- 
cies of  worms  and  of  irritating  foods.  Exposure 
in  damp  coops,  cold  rains,  or  draughts  often  result 
in  digestive  derangements  of  this  nature.  A  bird, 
during  moulting,  has  poor  protection  against  in- 
clement weather,  from  lack  of  feathers,  and  re- 
(juires  more  care  than  at  other  times. 

Symptoms. — The  plumage  loses  its  smooth,  well- 
kept  appearance;  the  bird  is  depressed  and  not 
inclined  to  move  about  as  much  as  usual;  there 
may  be  loss  of  appetite ;  the  crop  is  full ;  digestion 
is  slow;  the  cloaca  is  inflamed  (red)  and  sensitive 
(irritated);  the  evacuations  from  the  bowels  are 
frecpient,  the  discharges  being  fluid,  offensive  and 
varying  in  color  from  whitish-yellow  to  greenish. 
In  later  stages  the  evacuations  are  quite  spas- 
modic and  forcefully  ejected  (squirting)  and  the 
fluff  and  feathers  near  the  vent  are  soiled  with 
feces,  ^rhe  affected  bird  gradually  become-^ 
weakei-  and  there  is  a  rise  in  tempoi'jitiire.    It.  may 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT  93 


eat  little  or  nothing;  thirst  is  extreme  in  some 
cases.  The  bird  may  die  in  two  or  three  days  or 
it  may  live  for  two  or  three  weeks. 

Postmortem  Findings. —  In  fatal  cases  the  most 
noticeable  alterations  are  in  the  intestinal  tract 
and  the  liver.  Upon 
opening  the  small 
intestines,  areas  of 
inflammation  are 
noted,  and  occa- 
sionally a  small 
hemorrhage  is 
found.  Microscopic 
e  X  a  m  i  n  ation  of 
stained  se  c  t  i  o  n  s 
from  the  vital  or- 
gans (liver,  kid- 
ney, etc.)  reveals 
r  etr  ogress  ive 
changes ;  cloudy 
swelling  being  most 
marked.  Fig.  33 
illustrates  one  of 
these  cases. 

Treatment  —  Grive 
the  same  treatment  as  that  given  for  blackhead 
in  turkeys  and  for  fowl  cholera.  (See  pages  90 
and  83.) 

White  Diarrhea 

The  loss  to  American  poultry  raisers  from  white 
diarrhea  is  greater  than  from  anything  else,  per- 
haps greater  than  from  all  other  infectious  dis- 
eases combined.  It  strikes  at  the  root  of  the 
poultry  industry;  no  one  can  successfully  conduct 
the  business  if  he  is  unable  to  roar  a  reasonable 
number  of  chicks  annuallv. 


Fig. 

A, 


33 


Hemorrhagic     Enteritis     in 
Hen 
Small    hemorrhages    (natural    size). 


94  POULTRY   DISEASES 

Without  treatmeut  the  resulting  mortality,  when 
white  diarrhea  has  secured  a  foothold  in  a  poultry 
plant,  is  extremely  high,  often  reaching  ninety 
per  cent  of  the  season's  hatch.*  The  loss  from 
white  diarrhea  in  dollars  and  cents  is  enormous, 
almost  beyond  calculation.  It  is  widespread 
throughout  the  United  States  and  causes  the  loss 
of  perhaps  ten  per  cent  of  all  the  chicks  hatched 
in  this  country.  By  proper  measures  the  disease 
is  fairly  easily  preventable  and  a  large  number 
of  the  affected  chicks  will  recover  under  proper 
treatment. 

Causes. —  There  are  two  forms  of  white  diar- 
rhea, due  to  two  distinct  causes.  A  bacillary  form 
due  to  the  Bacterium  pullorum,  a  rather  short, 
plump,  rodshaped  germ  with  rounded  ends;  and 
a  protozoal  form  due  to  the  Coccidium  tenellum. 
I  have  isolated  the  germ  causing  the  disease  from 
the  liver,  spleen,  kidneys  and  other  organs  of 
chicks  dead  of  the  bacillary  form  of  the  disease, 
and  in  the  coccidian  form  from  the  ulcers  of  the 
cecum  and  the  intestines. 

Symptoms :  Bacillary  Form. —  In  young  chicks 
there  is  drooping  wings,  ruffled  feathers,  sleepy 
appearance,  huddled  together,  little  or  no  appetite, 
abdominal  yolk  not  properly  absorbing;  whitish 
or  whitish-brown  frothy  discharge  from  bowel 
which  adheres  more  or  less  to  the  vent  fluff;  eyes 
closed  part  of  the  time  and  apparently  no  interest 
in  life.  ''Peeping"  much  of  the  time,  the  ap- 
pearance in  many  is  stilty,  abdomen  prominent  be- 
hind. In  these  cases  after  death  one  finds  the  yolk 
unabsorbed  or  only  partially  so.  The  intestines 
are  more  or  less  full.    Late  fall,  wiiiltM-  or  earl>' 

•A  diet  of  sour  milk  is  said  (o  rcdiico  tlio  loss  Iroin  white  (li;ii- 
rhca  fifty  per  cent,  but  as  the  treatment  here  outlined  will  reduoo 
it  ninety  per  cent,  the  sour  milk  treatment  is  not  worth  considering. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT  95 

fipriiig  hatched  chicks  are  freer  from  the  disease 
than  summer  hatched.  This  may  be  explained 
by  the  fact  that  hens  with  diseased  ovaries  grad- 
ually become  poorer  layers  as  the  disease  pro- 
cesses advance,  and  hence,  only  lay  in  late  spring 
or  early  summer,  when  nature  intends  repro- 
duction of  birds.  Finally  the  hen  may  cease 
laying. 

Symptoms :  Coccidian  Form.— The  symptoms,  as  I 
have  seen  them,  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
bacillary  form,  excepting,  as  a  rule,  the  heavy 
death  rate  takes  place  later. 

Mode  of  Spread :  Bacillary  Form.-Ovaries  of  lay- 
ing hens,  diseased,  but  still  functionating,  may  be 
infected  by  the  germ.  The  germ  can  be  isolated, 
particularly  from  the  yolk,  of  at  least  some  of  the 
eggs  formed  in  such  an  ovary.  The  chicks  from 
infected  eggs,  as  a  result,  have  the  disease  more 
or  less  developed  when  they  are  hatched,  as  con- 
ditions which  favor  hatching  also  favor  the  multi- 
plication of  the  germs  to  an  extent  that  toxins 
(poisons)  have  already  been  produced  in  the 
young  in  sufficient  quantity  for  the  disease  to  at 
least  manifest  itself  in  a  few  hours  after  hatch- 
ing, although  ordinarily  they  do  not  begin  to  die 
until  they  are  about  a  week  old. 

The  whitish,  frothy,  pasty  bowel  discharge, 
jtnore  or  less  sticky  and  having  a  tendency  to 
''paste  up  the  vent,"  from  these  chicks  is  laden 
with  the  germs,  and  others  of  the  flock  soon  be- 
come infected  from  contaminated  food  picked  up 
from  the  ground.  In  the  former  case,  chicks  may 
begin  to  die  soon  after  hatching,  in  the  latter,  in 
from  three  to  four  days,  a  few  dying  each  day. 

The  death  rate  is  high,  reaching  in  many  cases 
as  much  as  seventy-five  per  cent  or  more.    Those 


96  POULTRY  DISEASES 

that  recover  are  stunted  and  do  not  make  satis- 
factory growth.  The  greatest  loss  is  from  the  first 
few  days  to,  in  some  cases,  two  or  three  weeks. 
It  is  probable  that  the  carriers  are  chicks  that  have 
recovered,  but  which  still  carry  the  organism  ( es- 
pecially in  the  ovary)  as  the  Imman  typhoid  car- 
riers carry  the  germs  of  typhoid  fever,  in  tlie  in- 
fected kidneys  and  in  bowel  ulcers.  These  "car- 
riers," having  established  an  immunity,  do  not 
themselves  succumb  to  the  disease,  and  they  raiM'ly 
show  any  outward  symptoms  of  it. 

Insanitary  conditions,  spoiled  feed,  dirty,  stag- 
nant water,  improperly  ventilated  incubators, 
brooders  and  building,  or  badly  regulated  heat, 
are  factors  in  weakening  the  physical  condition 
of  chicks  and  favor  ravages  of  diseases. 

Coccidian  Form. —  The  mode  of  spread  of  this 
form  is  at  present  ijroblematical.  It  is  possible 
that  a  chronic  type  of  coccidiosis  occurs  in  some 
birds  and  thus  perpetuates  and  diseminates  the 
protozoa. 

Postmortem  Findings:  Bacillary  Form. — The  liver  in  gen- 
eral is  usually  pale,  showing  areas  of  congestion  (active  and 
passive  congestion  and  cloudy  swelling).  The  yolk  only  par- 
tially absorbed,  congestion  of  the  intestines  may  or  may  not 
be  present.  Kidneys  normal  in  size,  but  show  congestion 
and  cloudy  swelling.  Carcass  more  or  less  pale  and  emaciated 
and  anemic. 

Coccidian  Form. — Upon  postmortem  examination  the  con- 
ditions are  found  to  be  similar  to  those  in  the  bacillary  form, 
except  there  will  be  noted  more  or  less  congestion  of  the  in- 
testinal mucosa  (lining),  and  ulcers  in  the  Intestines,  prin- 
cipally the  ceca.  The  ceca  appear  to  contain  considerable 
ingesta,  and  to  be  interfered  with  functionally. 

Fig.  34  shows  a  transverse  section  through  an  ulcerated 
area.  In  these  areas  we  find  cloudy  swelling,  followed  by 
necrosis  (retrogressive  changes  and  death  of  the  cells).  The 
remains  of  the  dead  cells  forms  a  cheesy  mass  (caseation 
necrosis).  It  will  be  noted  in  this  drawing  that  only  rem- 
nants of  a  few  of  the  glands  normally  present  are  yet  intact, 
the  remainder  of  the  mucous  membrane  and  in  places  the 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT  97 

submucous  layers  are  invaded  by  the  germ   (protozoon).     In 
Fig.  35  the  section  B  has  been  magnified  900  times. 

As  explained  under  the  cut,  all  stages  of  the  coccidium 
tenellum  are  observed  in  a  mass  of  dying  and  disintegrating 
cells — the  remains  of  the  diseased  mucous  lining  of  the  bowel. 
Repeated  examinations  have  been  made  of  healthy  chicks 
killed  for  the  purpose,  and  chicks  dying  from  other  causes, 
and  thus  far  no  case  has  shown  these  conditions. 

Treatment. — The  most  of  our  experimental  work 
with  various  remedies  has  been  with  the  coccidian 


Fig.    34  Fig.    35 

Fig.    34.     Section    Through     Cecum     (Magnified     loo    times) 
From  a  chick  that  had  died   of  coccidian  white   diarrhea.     A,  Muscular 
layer.      B,    remnant    of    gland.      C,    degenerated    disintegrating    mass. 
There  is  complete   destruction  of  the  mucous   membrane. 

Fig.  35.     Section  "B"  in  Fig.  34   (magnified  900  times) 
Shows  various  stages  of  the  coccidium  tenellum.     A,  Oocyst.     B,   Sporo- 
blast,   first    stage.      C,    sporozoit,    first    stage.      D,    schizont.    nierozoites 
within,    surrounded   by   a   disintegrating  cell   mass.      E,   polymorphonu- 
clear leukocyte. 

form.  In  one  outbreak,  referred  to  above,  80  per 
cent  of  the  first  hatch  of  2,000  chicks  had  died. 
We  began  trying  to  improve  sanitary  conditions, 
and  administered  various  dilutions  of  permangan- 
ate of  i3otash,  copperas  and  carbolic  acid.  The 
loss  was  unaffected.  By  this  time  the  writer  had 
examined  many  dozen  birds  in  his  laboratory,  and 
in  about  fifty  per  cent  of  the  cases,  the  Bacterium 


98  POULTRY  DISEASES 

pullorum  was  isolated  from  the  heart,  blood,  livei, 
spleen  and  kidneys,  and  in  every  case  the  coc- 
cidian  ulcers,  described  above,  were  observed. 

These  chicks  began  dying  in  numbers  at  about 
ten  days  of  age,  very  few  had  died  before  that 
time,  and  from  this  period  to  the  end  of  the  third 
week  the  great  loss  occurred.  After  this  time  but 
few  died,  but  those  having  the  disease  in  light 
form  were  stunted  and  did  not  make  satisfactory 
growth.  AVith  this  data  now  before  me,  I  now 
began  on  another  line  of  treatment. 

During  the  past  ten  years  I  have  used,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  dilutions  of  mercuric  chlor- 
ide (corrosive  sublimate)  as  an  intestinal  anti- 
septic in  chickens.  This  was  used,  in  this  outbreak, 
in  a  solution  of  1  :  10,000,  with  sulphocarbolates 
of  zinc,  sodium  and  calcium.  The  latter  had  not 
given  the  satisfactory  results  when  used  alono 
that  it  had  in  treatment  of  diarrhea  in  colts  and 
calves. 

Jones  (Cornell)  has  shown  that  a  solution  of 
1  : 1,000  (one-tenth  of  one  per  cent)  bichloride  of 
mercury,  will  kill  the  B.  pullorum  in  thirty  sec- 
onds; a  one  per  cent  carbolic  acid  solution  re- 
quires five  minutes  in  which  to  kill  this  germ ;  one 
per  cent  creolin  requires  five  minutes;  three  and 
one-third  per  cent  lactic  acid  kills  it  in  five  min- 
utes, and  five  per  cent  carbolic  acid  kills  it  in 
thirty  seconds.  Mercuric  chloride  is  therefore 
fifty  times  as  effective  against  this  germ  as  is 
carbolic  acid. 

Instructions  were  given  for  the  incubators  (con- 
taining also  the  nursery  trays)  to  be  tightly  closed 
and  fumigated  with  formaldehyde  gas,  as  recom- 
mended under  chicken  cholera,  before  filling  with 
eggs. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT  99 


After  the  chicks  were  hatched  they  were  not  to 
receive  any  feed  for  forty-eight  to  seventy-two 
hours,  as  the  yolk  contained  in  their  abdominal 
cavity  will  furnish  food  for  that  length  of  time, 
and  an  engorgement  of  the  intestines  might  im- 
pinge on  this  part  and  interfere  with  its  absorp- 
tion by  pressing  on  the  absorbing  vessels. 

The  following  solution  was  to  be  kept  before 
them  from  the  time  of  hatching  to  four  weeks  of 
age,  and  then  given  twice  a  week  for  the  next  few 
weeks:  Zinc  sulphocarbolate,  fifteen  grains,  sod- 
ium and  calcium  sulphocarbolate,  of  each  seven 
and  one-half  grains,  bichloride  of  mercury,  six 
grains,  and  citric  acid,  three  grains.  This  quan- 
tity was  dissolved  in  a  gallon  of  water.  The  re- 
sult was  that  eighty  per  cent  of  the  next  hatch 
was  saved. 

Blastomycosis  of  the  Pigeon 

There  is  a  condition  in  pigeons  in  which  there 
is  a  nodular  mass  in  the  upper  portion  of  the 
esophagus,  due  to 
a  kind  of  yeast-like 
germ.  It  is  termed 
blastomycosis,  and 
is  well  illustrated 
in  Fig.  37.  The 
squabs  become  af- 
fected early,  and  as 
the  diseased  or  tu- 
mor-like area  be- 
comes larger,  the 
bird  is  unable  to 
eat  or  swallow.  The 
loss  m  some  breed-       fic_  36.  blastomycosis  in  a  pigeon 

ing     establishments        ^'     Necrosing     mass^_containing     yeast-like 


100 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


is  considerable.  The  disease  area  manifests 
itself  as  a  lump  in  the  throat  or  neck,  which  is 
easily  felt. 

Treatment. — It    will    be    necessary   to    keep   the 
premises  thoroughly  clean,  constantly  disinfected, 

washed  with  an 
a  n  t  i  s  eptic.  The 
trays  after  each 
batch  of  squabs 
need  to  be  cleaned 
and  disinfected,  as, 
in  fact,  does  the 
entire  building. 

Some  good  re- 
sults have  been  ob- 
tained by  treating 
these  squabs  early 
with  a  solution  of 
s  u  1  p  hocarbolates 
compound.  Also 
other  antiseptics 
recommended  for 
chicken  cholera.  In 
squabs  it  will  be 
necessary  to  use  a  medicine  dropper  and  in- 
ject the  solution  into  the  mouth  several  times  a 
day.  If  the  disease  has  progressed  very  far.  it 
is  best  to  kill  the  squab  and  cremate  it. 

Coccidiosis  in  Wild  Ducks 

Two  wild  ducks  (mallards)  were  sent  to  the 
laboratory  by  the  game  warden  of  Colorado  dur- 
ing the  fall  of  1910,  with  the  history  that  they 
had  been  found  dead  on  a  reservoir,  and  that  the 
wild  ducks  were  dying  in  large  number^.  A  care- 
ful autopsy  was  held  on  these  birds.    There  were 


iMG. 


Fig.   37.  Fig-  38. 

S'/.     PuLMON.\RY    Coccidiosis    in 


Duck 

A,    Xodules    in    lung    caused    by    the    coc- 

cidium    (natural   size). 

Fig.    38.     Intestinal    Coccidiosis    in    a 

Duck 

E,    Ulcers    caused    by    the   coccidium 

(natural  size). 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT    101 

small  iH'arl-liko  nodules  throughout  the  lung  of 
one  of  tlio  ducks,  as  shown  in  Fig.  37.  Both 
showed  ulcerations  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
intestinal  tract.  These  ulcerations  were  numer- 
ous, as  many  as  eight  or  ten  in  each  bird,  and 
extended  the  entire  length  of  the  intestines.  Fig. 
38  illustrates  this  condition.  Upon  microscopic 
examination  of  these  lesions,  as  well  as  of  the  lung 
nodules,  coccidia  were  noted  which  resembled  the 
Coccidium  tcncUum,  one  of  the  specific  causes  of 
white  diarrhea  in  chicks. 

Other  Diseases  of  the  Intestinal  Tract 

Arsenical  Poisoning.— Arsenical  poisoning  ma>' 
occur  from  the  birds  drinking  spray  mixtures  con- 
taining paris  green  or  other  arsenical  compounds, 
from  eating  rat  poison,  etc.  Cases  have  been 
brought  to  our  attention  where  birds  had  been 
poisoned  by  eating  grasshoppers.  The  grass- 
hoppers had  been  given  arsenic  in  bran,  and  the 
birds,  devouring  large  numbers  of  them,  became 
ill,  and  many  of  them  died. 

Symptoms. — Loss  of  appetite,  black  comb,  dull- 
ness, sitting,  moping  and  unsteady  gait,  increasing 
weakness,  and  death.  Judging  from  the  effect  of 
poisonous  doses  of  arsenic  on  higher  animals,  the 
poisoned  birds  must  have  been  in  considerable 
pain,  but  they  did  not  show  it ;  birds  do  not  man- 
ifest pain  as  animals  do. 

Autopsy. — The  liver  was  normal,  except  that  it 
was  a  trifle  dark  in  color.  There  were  no  notice- 
able changes  in  the  other  abdominal  organs,  ex- 
cept the  intestinal  tract.  Upon  opening  the  in- 
testines there  were  noted  patches  of  hemorrhage 
and  areas  of  congestion  and  inflammation. 

Treatment. — This  is  scarcelv  worth  while.    De- 


102  POULTRY  DISEASES 

niiilcent  drinks,  as  water  in  whicli  slippery  elm 
bark  has  been  soaked,  or  even  milk,  are  indicated, 
after  a  fnll  dose  of  castor  oil. 

Salt  Poisoning. — Poisoning  among  chickens  and 
turkeys  from  eating  common  salt  or  drinking 
brine  is  quite  common  and  the  losses  from  it  are 
large.  It  may  occur  from  eating  salt  pork,  or  fish, 
or  from  drinking  the  l)rine  left  from  freezing  ice 
cream,  and  in  many  other  ways.  The  symptoms 
and  treatment  vary  but  little  from  arsenical  and 
other  poisons. 

Dr.  Geo.  H.  Glover,  Colorado,  reports  a  case  in  which  a 
lady  in  baking  a  cake  made  a  mistake  and  used  common 
table  salt  instead  of  sugar.  After  the  cake  was  baked  and 
the  mistake  discovered  the  young  housewife  concluded  to 
feed  it  to  her  nice  flock  of  chickens,  consisting  of  twenty- 
three  hens  and  one  rooster.  All  the  birds  except  the  rooster 
died. 

It  has  been  deterniined  tliat  twenty-live  grains  of 
salt  per  pound  of  live  weight  is  sullicient  to  pro- 
duce death  in  birds. 

Other  Mineral  Poisons. — SnJt peter  ]>oisoning. 
from  eating  fertilizer;  phosphorus  poisoning,  from 
eating  rat  i^oison,  lead  and  zUie  poisoning,  from 
eating  paint,  and  copper  poisoning,  from  drinking 
bordeaux  mixture,  have  been  described;  all  are 
infre(jU(Mit. 

Ptomain  Poisoning. — Limber  neck  is  one  of  those 
convenient  generic  terms  which  poultrymen  some- 
times apply  to  an.y  ailment  in  which  the  bird  is  too- 
sick  to  hold  up  its  head.  It  is  a  very  prominent 
symptom  in  all  forms  of  ptomain  poisoning. 

Cause. — Ptomain  poisoning  may  be  due  to  eating 
any  kind  of  food  in  which  putrefaction  has  set  in, 
but  is  usually  the  result  of  eating  decaying  meat 
or  fish. 

Because  of  the  more  favorable  conditions  for 
the  rapid  putrefaction  of  meat  in  very  hot  weather, 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT   103 

ptomain  poisoning  occurs  chiefly  in  mid- summer, 
and  on  farms  were  the  fowls  have  an  extended 
range,  including  patches  of  high  weeds  that  ef- 
fectually conceal  dead  animals  from  the  care- 
taker, until  the  loss  of  a  large  portion  of  the  flock 
compels  cutting  weeds  and  a  diligent  search  for 
the  carcass. 

The  beginning  of  ptomain  poisoning  in  a  flock 
is  usually  something  like  this:  During  very  hot 
weather  a  bird  dies  in  the  tall  weeds,  it  may  be 
from  disease  or  from  violence,  and  in  three  or 
four  days  its  carcass  is  filled  with  maggots  and 
in  an  advanced  stage  of  decomposition;  it  is 
found  by  the  other  birds  and  devoured,  with  the 
consequent  death  of  many  of  them,  some  of  them 
dying  in  out  of  the  way  places  and  remaining  un- 
discovered by  the  keeper,  and  in  turn  poisoning 
others,  and  so  on. 

Oftentimes  the  keeper  is  responsible  for  the  be- 
ginning of  the  trouble  by  thoughtlessly  throwing 
some  small  animal  which  he  has  killed  (opossum, 
weasel,  rat,  etc.)  where  the  fowls  find  it.  If  the 
weather  conditions  are  favorable  to  rapid  de- 
composition, i3tomain  poisoning  in  the  flock  will 
result  and  the  '^ vermin"  dead  will  destroy  more 
birds  than  ten  of  its  kind  would  destrov  during 
life. 

Maggots  are  usually  found  in  the  crops  of  birds 
dying  from  eating  putrid  flesh,  and  if  the  poultry- 
man  holds  autopsies  on  the  dead  birds,  he  is  quite 
apt  to  conclude  that  the  maggots  have  killed  them. 
Such  is  not  the  case. 

Report  of  a  Case  of  Ptomain  Poisoning 

In  one  flock  there  were  twenty-four  hens.  A  can  of  spoiled 
corn  that  had  been  left  sitting  in  the  basement,  in  a  glass 
container,   with  top  removed,  was  given  to   the  birds  at  11 


104  POUT /PRY   niSRASKS 

o'clock  and  at  C  o'clock  five  wore  dead.  At  2  p.  m.  next 
day  thirteen  were  dead,  with  three  more  showing  symptoms 
of  poisoning.  A  flock  of  sin:ili  chicks,  with  the  old  hen,  as 
well  as  three  setting  hens  that  had  not  eaten  any  of  the  corn, 
were  not  in  any  way  affected.  There  was  no  visible  evidence 
of  great  pain  and  there  were  no  spasms.  The  birds  had  at 
first  an  unsteady  gait  with  inco-ordinate  movement.  Prostra- 
tion was  rapid.  They  lay  on  the  ground  in  a  relaxed  con- 
dition with  head  and  neck  curled  over  towards  the  breast, 
but  not  rigid.  AVhenever  a  bird  was  disturbed  it  struggled. 
The  comb  turned  black.  In  some  cases  diarrhea  appeared, 
■with  occasionally  a  small  amount  of  blood.  Death  occurred 
in  a  few  hours. 

At  postmortem  the  crop  and  gizzard  contained  some  corn 
of  a  sour  odor.  The  only  tissue  change  noted  was  a  con- 
gestion of  the  intestines  and  of  the  liver,  kidneys  (active 
and  passive  congestion  and  cloudy  swelling). 

Treatment. — Grive  a  tablespoonfiil  of  castor  oil 
and  one-fiftli  .urain  closes  of  sulphate  of  strycli- 
nino,  tlio  latter  every  four  to  six  hours. 

Experiments  have  been  conducted  to  determine 
the  exact  dosage  of  strychnine  for  an  average- 
sized  hen.  It  has  been  found  that  the  dose  should 
be  from  one-sixth  to  one-fifth  of  a  grain  3  times 
a  day.  The  author  has  given  one  grain  repeat- 
edly without  ill  effect,  but  when  given  in  solution 
and  on  an  empty  crop  it  killed  the  bird. 

Corn  Cockle  Poisoning. — Chickens  eating  large 
quantities  of  corn  cockle,  in  ground  form,  incor- 
porated in  their  feed  in  the  form  of  mash,  have 
l)een  poisoned. 

The  seed  contains  a  poison,  sapotoxin,  which 
causes  a  severe  inflammation  of  the  entire  digest- 
ive tract,  including  the  cvo]i.  Great  prostration 
and  death  follow. 

Cloacitis 

Symptoms. — The  anus  became  red  (inflamed), 
protruded,  and  later  ulcerated.  Antiseptics  were 
applied  and  injected  into  the  cloaca  with  the  view 
of  destroying  the  germs  causing  the  trouble,  but 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT    105 

tlic  bird  died.  Upon  autopsy  it  was  found  that 
acute  inflammation  had  extended  the  entire  length 
of  the  rectum.  See  Plate  I  for  this  portion  of  the 
anatomy.  The  latter  condition  would  be  called  a 
proctitis. 

Treatment. — In  these  cases  apply  a  solution  of 
sulphocarbolates  compound,  five  per  cent  carbol- 
ized  vaseline,  or  a  solution  of  five  per  cent  carbolic 
acid  in  warm  water.  The  solutions  may  be  in- 
jected with  a  syringe  and  the  ointment  applied 
with  the  finger. 


'■  1  -'^n^  / 


':i 


/ 


SECTION  VI 

Blood  Diseases 

Under  blood  diseases  come  tlie  septicemias,  as 
apoplectiform  septicemia,  septicemia  of  geese,  ty- 
phoid of  fowls,  and  spirochetosis,  all  caused  by 
germs  which  live  and  multiply  in  the  blood  stream. 

Apoplectiform  Septicemia  in  Chickens 
and  Pigeons 

This  disease  is  due  to  the  Streptococcus  gallin- 
arum,  which  grows  in  long  or  short  chains.  It 
can  be  readily  grown  upon  artificial  media  and 
does  not  liquefy  gelatin.  Experimental  inocula- 
tions with  this  organism  killed  the  following  ani- 
mals :  chickens,  mice,  rabbits  and  swine.  It  does 
not  kill  guinea  pigs  or  dogs.  The  germ  multiplies 
in  the  blood. 

Symptoms. — Apoplectiform  septicemia  is  rapid 
in  its  progress.  The  bird  shows  great  prostra- 
tion, feathers  ruffled,  loss  of  appetite,  and  the  con- 
dition rapidly  terminates  in  death.  Often  birds 
die  in  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  after  the 
first  symptoms  appear.  Birds  in  which  no  symp- 
toms of  the  disease  had  been  noticed  may  be 
found  dead  under  the  roosts.  This  disease  often 
causes  great  loss  to  pigeon  fanciers. 

Postmortem  Findings. —  The  spleen  is  enlarged, 
dark  and  soft;  focal  necrosis  is  noted  in  the  kid- 
neys, spleen  and  liver.  Cloudy  swelling  also  oc- 
curs preceding  this  state.  Pneumonia  may  be 
present.  The  germs  can  be  isolated  in  pure  cul- 
ture from  any  of  the  organs  named. 

107 


108  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Treatment.— Observe  the  rules  of  sanitation,  as 
directed  for  chicken  cholera.  (Page  83.)  If  pos- 
sible, separate  the  well  birds  from  the  sick.  Vac- 
cination with  a  vaccine  made  from  the  streptococ- 
cus gallinarum  has  given  good  results.  Sulpho- 
carbolates  compound  may  be  tried,  as  outlined  in 
the  article  on  chicken  cholera  referred  to  above. 

Septicemia  of  Geese 

This  disease  has  been  described  as  being  caused 
by  a  germ  which  closely  resembles  the  polar  stain- 
ing germ  of  chicken  cholera.  It  multiplies  in  the 
blood. 

Symptoms. — Geese  are  often  found  dead  without 
having  been  noted  to  have  been  ill.  The  majority 
die  very  quickly,  that  is  within  two  or  three  hours 
after  first  symptoms  appear.  Occasionally  a  bird 
may  live  for  several  days  and  finally  die. 

Postmortem  Findings. —  Small  pinpoint  hemor- 
rhages may  be  noted,  especially  in  the  mucous  lin- 
ing of  the  intestines.  Usually  the  digestive  tract 
contains  feed  in  all  stages  of  digestion,  indicating 
that  the  disease  is  very  rapid  in  its  onset.  Con- 
siderable mucus  may  be  found  in  the  mouth  and 
throat.  Inflannnation  ma}''  be  noted  in  the  liver, 
pericardium  (heart  sac),  spleen  and  kidneys. 

Treatment. — Sanitary  measures  the  same  as 
those  given  for  chicken  cholera.     (See  page  83.) 

Fowl  Typhoid.    Infectious  Leukemia 

This  is  due  to  a  short,  plump  germ  with  rounded 
ends.  It  is  called  the  Bacterium  sanguinarium, 
and  is  easily  isolated  from  birds  dead  of  the  dis- 
ease. It  reproduces  the  disease  in  inoculated 
birds,  multiplying  in  the  blood. 


BLOOD    DISEASES  109 

Symptoms. — Anemic  or  blauclied  appearance  of 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  head,  with  a  dull 
appearance  and  great  prostration,  usually  ending 
in  death  in  about  four  days,  is  characteristic  of 
this  disease.  In  some  cases  the  affected  bird  may 
live  three  to  four  weeks.  Moore  reports  a  decrease 
in  red  blood  cells  and  an  increase  in  white  blood 
cells,  the  latter  principally  the  polymorphonU' 
lear  leukocytes. 

Postmortem  Findings. —  The  liver  is  enlarged 
and  mottled  with  grayish  patches,  due  to  areas  of 
leukocytic  invasion.  The  germ  can  be  isolated 
from  the  internal  organs.  The  kidney  shows  con- 
gestion, which  may  be  recognized  by  the  minute 
red  lines.  The  intestines  may  be  congested.  The 
spleen  usually  appears  normal  in  size  and  color. 
The  red  blood  cells  gradually  diminish  and  a 
leukocytosis  (an  increase  of  the  white  blood  cells) 
appears. 

Treatment.—  Prompt  isolation  of  the  well  from 
the  sick  birds  and  sanitary  measures  as  given  for 
fowl  cholera  (see  page  83)  should  be  observed. 

Thrombosis 

A  bird  was  sent  to  the  laboratory  with  the  his- 
tory that  it  had  been  sick  for  several  weeks. 
There  was  a  partial  loss  of  appetite,  finally  com- 
plete loss ;  the  bird  showed  weakness  and  a  gradual 
emaciation.  The  hen  died  in  about  two  weeks 
after  coming  to  the  laboratory. 

At  autopsy  there  was  noted  great  emaciation. 
All  organs  appeared  normal  except  the  circulatory 
system.  There  was  thrombosis  (complete 
plugging)  of  the  right  brachial  artery  (artery  to 
right  wing)  and  the  same  of  the  large  vessel  to 
the  liver,  as  well  as  of  the  iliac  and  femoral  arterv 


110 


POULTRY'   r)lSl<:ASKS 


ol'  tlie  left  side  (artery  to  left  leg).  Upon  luiero- 
pcopic  examination  they  were  found  to  be  white 
thrombi.  Fig.  39  illustrates  this  condition.  It 
]nay  bo  seen  tliat  ilie  blood  vessels  are  quite  dis- 
tenderl  by  tlie  ))lood  fibrin. 

Spirochetosis 

This  is  a  blood  disease  (septicemia)  due  to  a 
spiral-like  microscoi'jic  germ  which  is  supposed  to 

be  carried  from 
bird  to  bird  by 
means  of  the 
chicken  tick;  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  16. 
Fig.  40  shows  a 
drawing  of  the 
g  e  r  m.  It  is  the 
Spirocheta  gallin- 
arum;  the  slide 
from  which  this 
drawing  was  made 
was  kindly  sent 
to  the  author  by 
Dr.  Balfour  of 
Khartoum,  Sudan, 
Africa. 

This  disease  was 
first  recognized  in  Brazil;  it  is  found  in  Africa 
and  Europe.  A  disease  occurs  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  United  States,  where  the  chicken  tick 
is  abundant,  that  presents  symptoms  similar  to 
those  of  spirochetosis;  so  far  as  the  author 
knows,  no  definite  work  has  been  done  to  deter- 
mine the  true  cause  of  it. 

Spirochetosis  is  most  common  among  chickens, 
but  also  infects  geese,  ducks,  pigeons  and  spar- 
rows. 


Fig.    39.     Thrombosis    in    a    Hen 

A,  Pelvis  bone,  central  portion.     B,  muscle 

of    thigh.      C,    blood    vessel    containing 

a   white   thrombus. 


BLOOD    DISEASES 


111 


^^'Mr-y^t^^ 


m^e''i& 


^fe^ 


Symptoms. — There  is  noted  a  dullness,  loss  of 
appetite,  rapid  emaciation ;  the  head  and  tail  are 
down,  and  the  bird 
stands  around  in  cor- 
ners or  on  the  roost, 
with  its  eyes  closed. 
Fig.  41  shows  a  photo- 
graph of  a  typical 
case.  Note  the  attitude 
of  head,  tail  and 
body. 

Another  form  of  sep- 
ticemia in  chickens  is 
caused  by  a  comma- 
shaped  germ,  the 
Spirillum   Met  chin  iJcovi  or   Vibrio   Metchinikovi. 

The  symptoms  are  similar  to  those  of  fowl  chol- 
era, except  that  there  is  no,  or  at  most  but  slight. 


Fig.  40.  Spirocheta  Gallinarum 
This  drawing,  made  from  a  blood 
smear,  shows  red  blood  cells 
Coval),  thrombocytes  and  leu- 
kocytes (round)  and  spirochetes 
(corkscrew-like) . 


Fig.    41.     Acute    Spirochetosis    (after    Balfour) 

elevation  of  the  temperature.     Diarrhea  is  con 
stantly  present.     Inflammation  of  the  bowel  and 
enlarged  liver  (hepatitis)  is  noted.    The  disease 


112  POULTRY  DISEASES 

lias  not  l)een  reported  in  this  coiiiitiy.     It  may 
exist  unrocoii'iiizod. 

Pericarditis 

Tliis  is  an  inflammation  of  tlic  pericardium  or 
lieart  sac;  there  is  usually  an  effusion  about  the 
heart,  and  it  is  often  spoken  of  as  dropsy  of  the 
heart  sac  or  dropsy  of  the  heart.  It  is,  of  course, 
not  strictly  a  blood  disease,  but  it  is  often  asso- 
ciated with  diseases  of  the  blood  and  of  the  lungs, 
as  a  complication;  further  than  this  its  cause  is 
not  known,  Init  may  result  from  exposure  to  cold 
and  dampness. 

Symptoms. — A  diagnosis  of  pericarditis  cannot 
ordinarily  be  made  during  the  life  of  the  bird,  but 
is  easily  demonstrated  on  autopsy.  Tumultous 
heart  action,  extreme  exhaustion  on  exercise,  and 
difficulty  of  breathing  are  symptoms  observable 
during  life. 

Treatment. — Treatment  is  unsatisfactory;  nu- 
merous cases  occurring  in  the  same  flock  should 
lead  to  the  enforcement  of  better  hygienic  condi- 
tions, especially  to  better  protection  from  cold 
and  dampness. 

Endocarditis 

This  is  an  inflammation  of  tiie  lining  membrane 
of  the  lieart,  usually  affecting  the  valves  also. 
Nothing  is  known  of  its  cause,  but  it  is  of  not  in- 
frequent occurrence  during  the  course  of  certain 
diseases  of  the  blood.  It  cannot  be  diagnosed  dur- 
ing life,  and  therefore  cannot  be  treated.  From 
what  we  know  of  tlie  cause  of  endocarditis  in  man 
and  animals,  we  should  exi»e(*t  exposure  to  cold 
and  dampness  to  be  a  factor  in  the  cause  of  this 
disease,  and  as  such  to  be  avoided. 


BLOOD  DISEASES  113 

Rupture  of  the  Heart  and  Large  Blood 
Vessels 

Internal  hemorrhage  (bleeding)  due  to  rupture 
of  the  heart  or  large  blood  vessels  is  common 
in  overfed  fowls.  It  may  be  caused  by  any  excite- 
ment or  overexertion  in  such  birds.  It  is  described 
in  this  section  because  affecting  organs  of  circu- 
lation. 

Symptoms. — There  is  a  sudden  blanching  of  the 
comb  and  mucous  membranes  followed  by  great 
weakness,  coma  and  death.  No  treatment  is  prac- 
ticable. 


SECTION  VII 

Constitutional  Diseases 

Under  this  head  we  class  "going  light"  and 
tuberculosis. 

Both  cause  considerable  loss  to  the  poultry- 
man.  There  is  much  doubt  as  to  whether  the  for- 
mer should  be  classed  as  a  disease ;  certainly  this 
term  as  usually  applied  refers  merely  to  a  symp- 
tom of  a  disease  (often  tuberculosis  or  enteritis) 
or  condition  in  which  there  is  a  progressive  loss 
in  the  weight  of  the  bird. 

Going  Light  (Asthen) 

Those  who  look  upon  going  light  as  a  specific 
disease  consider  it  as  one  that  affects  chickens  and 
pigeons.  It  may  affect  old  or  young  birds.  It  is 
called  going  light  because  the  bird  becomes  grad- 
ually lighter  until  emaciated.  It  is  a  disease  that 
is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  A  germ 
called  the  Bacterium  asthene  has  been  isolated 
by  one  investigator  from  the  intestines  of  sick 
birds.  It  corresponds  with  the  Bacillus  coli  com- 
munis always  present  in  the  intestinal  tract  of 
chickens. 

The  affected  birds  have  a  good  appetite  -,  in  fact, 
at  times  a  ravenous  one.  The  loss  of  flesh  is  con- 
tinuous for  a  few  weeks,  when  the  bird  dies. 

In  eleven  cases  of  going  light  examined  by  the 
pathological  laboratory  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  three  were  found  to  be 
infected  by  the  Bacillus  enteritiditis.  This  germ 
is  dangerous  to  man.    It  affects  cattle  and  has  re- 

115 


116  POUI/|■k^■  Disi:  Asi-:s 

suited  fatally  lo  those  pci-soiis  catintc  iTifcctccl 
Tiioat. 

Postmortem  Findings.— rsiially  oji  autopsy  all 
origans  apjK'ai-  iioiiiial  so  far  as  gross  appearaiic*' 
goes,  but  extreuie  einaciatiou  as  desoribed  above 
is  noted. 

The  following  is  the  result  of  a  blood  study  in 
these  cases : 

Report  of  Asthen  Cases 

Two  outbreaks  have  been  investigated  by  the  author.  One 
in  a  flock  of  Rhode  Island  Reds,  in  which  flock  there 
were  about  two  hundred  birds  which  should  have  weighed 
about  two  pounds  each.  The  disease  affected  a  gradually 
increasing  number.  The  feed  consisted  of  grain,  insects  picked 
up  from  the  fields,  and  plenty  of  green  grass.  As  it  was 
irrigation  time,  the  birds  had  access  to  the  irrigating  ditches. 
The  henhouse  and  yard  were  kept  clean.  It  was  advised 
to  change  the  run  and  continue  giving  a  variety  of  good 
green  feed  and  grain  with  a  good  supply  of  water.  The 
disease  finally  disappeared  from  the  flock.  All  efforts  at  the 
laboratory  to  isolate  any  germ  which  might  have  been  the 
cause  of  the  disease  were  unsuccessful. 

The  second  flock  was  from  eggs  that  had  been  produced 
by  birds  in  which  roup  had  appeared  the  preceding  winter. 
Five  birds  about  four  months  old  were  sent  to  the  laboratory 
for  study  with  the  following  history:  The  birds  had  good 
hygienic  surroundings,  were  moved  from  place  to  place,  given 
fresh  water  and  good  quality  of  feed,  with  plenty  of  green 
stuff,  but  without  success;  the  birds  not  only  did  not  thrive, 
but  continued  to  lose  flesh  and  finally  died,  notwithstanding 
that  most  of  them  had  a  ravenous  appetite. 

Chick  No.  3. — Hemoglobin,  65  per  cent;  erythrocytes,  2,920,- 
000.  Leukocytes,  28,000.  Differential  count:  Polymorphonu- 
clear neutrophiles,  39  per  cent;  eosinophiles,  30  per  cent; 
lymphocytes,  29  per  cent;   mast  cells,  2  per  cent. 

Chick  No.  4. — Hemoglobin,  65  per  cent;  erythrocytes,  2,600,- 
000;  leukocytes,  14,000.  Differential  count:  Eosinophiles, 
31  per  cent;  mononuclears,  8  per  cent;  lymphocytes,  60  per 
cent;   basophiles,  1  per  cent. 

Chick  No.  5. — Hemoglobin,  75  per  cent;  leukocytes,  34,000; 
erythrocytes,  3,000,000.  Differential  count:  Polymorphonu- 
clears neutrophiles,  4  per  cent;  eosinophiles,  .'»0  per  cent;  baso- 
philes, 3  per  cent;  mononuclears,  4  per  cent;  lymphocytes, 
39  per  cent. 

Chick  No.  6. — This  bird  was  about  four  months  old,  stunted 
in  growth,  "going  light."  and  had  contracted  roup  from  an- 
other bird.     The   blood    study    shows   the    following:      Hemo- 


CONSTITUTIONAL  DISEASES  117 

globin,  60  per  cent;  leukocytes,  16',000;  erythrocytes,  3,600,- 
000;  thrombocytes,  436,000.  Differential  count:  Eosinophiles, 
3  per  cent;  mononuclears.  4  per  cent;  lyraphtocytcs,  89  per 
cent;   mast  cells,  4  per  cent. 

All  efforts  to  isolate  germs  from  the  liver,  spleen,  kidneys 
and  heart-blood  were  unsuccessful. 

More  study  must  be  done  on  this  disease  to  determine  the 
true  cause,  before  rational  treatment  can  be  outlined. 

Treatment. — The  birds  should  receive  one-fourth 
to  one  grain  ferrous  sulphate  once  a  day  in  soft 
feed.     The  prognosis  is  not  hopeful. 

With  our  present  knowledge  we  will  look  to 
sanitary  surroundings  for  the  control  of  this  con- 
dition—clean coops  and  yards,  good  feed  and 
water.  A  tablespoonful  of  powdered  ginger  to 
each  dozen  hens  may  be  given  once  or  twice  a  day 
in  soft  feed. 

Tuberculosis 

This  is  a  disease  of  great  importance  to  the 
poultryman,  not  only  on  account  of  its  destructive- 
ness  to  his  flock,  but  also  on  account  of  its  relation 
to  the  health  of  himself  and  family;  for  while 
fowls  are  not  very  likely  to  contract  tuberculosis 
from  domestic  animals  or  from  man,  yet  fowls 
that  have  the  disease  are  a  serious  menace  to  the 
other  animals  on  the  farm  as  well  as  to  the  poul- 
tr^nnan  and  his  family. 

Cause. — The  Bacillus  tuberculosis,  which  was 
discovered  by  Koch  in  1882,  is  the  cause  of  this 
disease.  There  are  four  jn-incipal  types  of  this 
organism.  The  one  most  commonly  infecting  man 
is  designated  as  the  human  type.  The  one  pecu- 
liar to  cattle  is  designated  as  the  bovine  type,  and 
the  one  peculiar  to  fowls  the  avian  type;  and 
there  is  still  another  type  of  the  tubercle  bacillus 
which  affects  fish  and  other  cold-blooded  animals. 

While  there  are  some  differences  in  the  shape 


118  POULTRY  DISEASES 

of  tlic!  organisms  grown  for  considerable  time  in 
the  various  animals  and  some  differences  (bio- 
chemically) wlion  grown  in  artificial  media  after 
isolation,  yet  the  type  peculiar  to  any  of  the  warm- 
blooded animals  will  grow  in  any  of  the  other 
warm-blooded  animals,  that  is,  the  types  are  in- 
terchangeable, which  means  that  the  bovine  type 
may  cause  tuberculosis  in  man  and  the  human  type 
may  cause  tuberculosis  in  birds,  etc.  Most  auth- 
ors consider  that  while  the  chicken  has  consider- 
able resistance  to  the  human  type,  it  will  and  does 
become  infected  with  this  type. 

It  has  been  found  that  a  large  percentage  of 
hogs  fed  swill  from  houses  where  tuberculous  per 
sons  have  expectorated  into  it,  become  tubercul- 
ous, and  when  slaughtered,  there  is  a  considerable 
loss  from  condemnation  of  those  badly  affected. 
(Busman.) 

Tuberculosis  among  chickens  is  rare  in  some 
portions,  and  is  very  common  in  other  localities  in 
the  United  States.  Although  it  is  widespread 
throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada,  it  was 
first  reported  in  this  country  in  1900  and  received 
but  slight  attention  until  1903.  It  also  occurs  in 
turkeys,  pigeons  and  pheasants,  and  two  cases 
in  wild  geese  were  reported  at  the  Ontario  Agri- 
cultural College.  The  loss  from  this  disease  seems 
to  be  increasing. 

Mode  of  Spread,— In  the  progress  of  tuberculo 
sis  of  chickens  at  times  there  is  noted  a  diarrhea. 
In  these  cases  there  are  found  tubercular  ulcers 
of  the  mucous  lining  of  the  intestinal  tract.  In 
these  cases  the  spread  is  very  rapid  through  the 
flock,  as  birds  are  continually  picking  feed  from 
the  ground  and  floors  wliere  contamination  is  sure 
to  have  taken  place. 


CONSTITUTIONAL  DISEASES  119 

If  scraps  be  fed  to  wliicli  tuberculous  sputum 
has  found  its  way  or  if  the  birds  are  allowed  to 
devour  parts  of  an  animal  dead  of  the  disease, 
there  is  a  liability  of  their  contracting  tubercu- 
losis. 

There  is  also  a  possibility  that  birds,  by  fol- 
lowing tuberculous  cattle,  may  l)ecome  infected, 
as  do  hogs.  It  has  been  argued  tliat  tlie  temper- 
ature of  the  bird  is  so  high  (105°  F.  to  107°  F.) 


A  B 

Fig.  42.  Tuberculosis  in  a  Hen 
A,  Spleen  showing  miliary  tubercules. 
B,    liver   showing   miliary   tubercules. 

that  it  furnishes  an  unfavorable  field  for  the  hu- 
man and  bovine  types  of  germs,  which  thrive  at 
temperatures  close  to  98°  and  101°  F.,  respective- 
ly. It  has,  however,  been  found  that  these  germs 
soon  adjust  themselves  to  such  changes  in  tem- 
perature and  to  a  certain  degree  to  differences  in 
food. 

One  case,  a  hen,  was  sent  to  the  laboratory  with  the  history 
of  having  had  access  to  the  sputum  of  a  person  afflicted  with 
tuberculosis.  Upon  autopsy  small  pearl-like  nodules  were 
found  throughout'  the  liver  (See  Fig.  42),  in  the  lung  sub- 
stance and  over  the  serous  lining  covering  the  intestines  and 


120  POULTRY  DISKAS1<:S 

abdominal  cavity.  A  microscopic  exaniination  of  the  lesions 
revealed  the  bacillus  of  tuberculosis.  It  more  closely  re- 
sembled  the  Iniman  than  the  avain  type. 

Symptoms. — An  absoliito  diagnosis  cainu)!  Ix; 
mack'  diiriiii;'  lifo,  as  the  symptoms  olisorved  are 
common  to  many  conditions,  especially  in  the  early 
stages  when  there  are  no  positive  external  symp- 
toms by  which  it  can  be  recognized.  The  bird  be- 
comes emaciated.  The  rapidity  of  emaciation,  like 
in  other  animals,  depends  on  the  progress  of  the 
disease;  that  is,  the  susceptibility  of  the  bird,  as 
well  as  the  degree  of  infection. 

The  comb  appears  pale,  the  bird  becomes  dull 
and  sleepy,  has  "no  life."  If  the  joints  become 
affected  there  will  be  lameness  in  case  the  affec- 
tion is  in  the  legs  and  swollen  joints,  and  often  in 
affection  of  the  skin  and  visible  mucous  mem- 
branes is  noted  there  is  ulceration  (sores).  This 
latter  condition  has  been  noted  especially  in  par- 
rots. These  skin  areas  are  made  up  of  a  cheesy 
material  (caseation  necrosis),  which  is  covered  by 
a  thick,  rather  hard,  crust,  whitish  in  color.  At 
times  it  is  noted  that  these  crusts  become  rather 
horny  in  nature. 

The  red  blood  cells  in  a  tiiberculous  fowl  may 
be  greatly  reduced  (as  low  as  1,000,000),  and  the 
hemoglobin  as  low  as  thirty-five  per  cent.  Wliite 
blood  cells  are  slightly  increased. 

Postmortem  Findings.— Owing  to  the  fact  that 
most  birds  are  infected  with  tuberculosis  through 
contaminated  food,  we  find  most  of  the  lesions  in 
the  abdominal  organs.  Of  these  the  liver  is  most 
often  diseased.  Next  in  frequency  comes  the 
spleen  and  the  serous  lining  of  the  cavity,  as  stat- 
ed in  report  above. 

As  indicated   above,  the  ni'eas  may  a]>])ear  as 


CONSTITUTIONAL  DISEASES  121 

pearly,  giayisli-wliite  nodules  varying  in  size  from 
a  piu-liead  to  a  pea,  or  even  larger.  In  these 
larger  nodnles  there  will  be  noted  a  cheesy  mass 
which,  as  the  lesions  become  older,  they  become 
impregnated  with  calcium  (lime)  and  then  cut 
like  gritty  material.  In  healed  tubercles  there 
may  be  a  solid  calcareous  (stony)  mass.  Usually 
the  diseased  organs  are  enlarged.  Fig.  42  illus- 
trates a  liver  and  spleen  studded  with  pearly 
tubercles  of  pin-head  size.  This  liver  was  from 
a  hen  afflicted  with  tuberculosis. 

Upon  opening  the  intestine  of  a  tuberculous 
bird  there  may  be  noted  ulcers,  usualh^  small  in 
size,  and  a  thickening  of  the  wall.  The  abdom- 
inal lymph  glands  (kernels)  are  tuberculous.  At 
times  these  show  small  tubercles  from  the  size 
of  a  pin-head  to  larger,  at  other  times  a  cheesy 
mass  (caseation  necrosis),  and  in  still  older  areas 
an  infiltration  with  lime  salts.'  Small  tubercles 
may  also  be  found  in  the  lungs  and  other  adja- 
cent tissue. 

Like  in  the  higher  animals,  the  bones  become 
tuberculous,  there  is  noted  swelling  tubercles  and 
caseation;  later  calcification. 

Treatment.— Treatment  of  the  affected  bird  is 
not  to  be  thought  of.  As  shown  above,  the  germs 
of  the  disease  are  so  often  spread  through  the 
droppings  that  the  only  sure  means  of  eradicat- 
ing the  disease  from  a  flock  is  to  kill  all  the  birds 
in  the  flock  and  if  possible  move  the  henhouse  to 
a  new  location  and  have  new  runs.  If  this  is  not 
practicable,  thoroughly  disinfect  with  five  per  cent 
carbolic  acid  or  five  per  cent  creolin,  all  fences, 
feed  troughs,  watering  tanks  and  buildings,  as 
indicated  under  cholera. 

Birds  from  an  infected  flock  should  not  be  sold 


122  POULTRY  DISEASES 

for  breeding  purposes,  and  the  birds  from  such  a 
flock  that  are  killed  for  food  should  be  inspected 
by  a  competent  veterinarian,  so  that  none  may  be 
used  for  food  purposes  that  are  diseased  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  render  the  food  unfit  for  human 
consumption. 

All  birds  in  a  flock  infected  with  tuberculosis 
that  die  should  be  cremated  to  prevent  further 
spread  of  the  disease  from  that  source.  All  drop- 
pings and  cleanings  from  the  henhouse  and  runs 
should  be  disinfected  with  calcium  chloride,  a  five 
per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid  or  other  reliable 
disinfectant  before  spreading  on  the  fields. 


SECTION  VIII 

Diseases  of  the  Liver 

Inflammation  and  necrosis  of  tlie  liver  as  seen 
in  many  of  the  infections  diseases  have  already 
been  referred  to  under  the  discussions  of  these 
different  diseases,  as  chicken  cholera,  blackhead, 
tuberculosis,  etc.  Aside  from  diseases  of  the  liver 
due  to  infection,  the  commonest  cause  of  ailments 
of  this  organ  is  improper  feeding.  It  is  with  great 
difficulty  that  diseases  of  the  liver  can  be  recog- 
nized except  upon  postmortem  examination. 
Treatment,  as  a  rule,  is  useless. 

Fatty  Degeneration 

This  is  a  condition  in  which  there  is  a  disease 
process  in  the  protoplasm  of  the  liver  cells,  by 
which  the  normal  secreting  cells  of  the  liver  are 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  replaced  by  fat  cells. 
The  liver  is  smaller  than  normal,  unless  fatty 
infiltration  is  also  present ;  it  appears  slightly  yel- 
lowish, and  when  cut  through  the  blade  of  the 
knife  will  have  a  greasy  appearance,  due  to  the 
fat  that  adhers  to  it. 

Symptoms. — Birds  affected  with  fatty  degenera 
tion  of  the  liver  show  varied  symptoms,  but  usu- 
ally they  are  dull,  eat  little  and  the  comb  turns 
dark  to  black.  They  gradually  become  thin  in 
flesh  and  finally  die.  Usually  the  bird  will  live 
from  two  or  three  weeks  to  three  months  after 
the  symptoms  first  appear.  On  autopsy  all  or- 
gans usually  appear  normal  except  the  liver. 

Treatment. —  Tliere  is  very  little  that  can  be  done 
123 


124  POUT.TRY  DISEASES 

for  this  condition.  Podophyllin  in  one-grain  doses 
every  three  days  may  be  given  with  some  hope 
of  relief. 

Fatty  Infiltration 

Tliis  condition  may  be  a  pliysiological  or  nor 
mal  process  until  the  accumnlation  of  fat  occurs 
in  such  quantities  as  to  interfere  with  the  func- 
tion of  the  liver  cells. 

The  liver  is  one  of  the  so-called  storehouses  of 
the  body  for  fat.  In  it  is  stored  a  surplus  until 
needed  by  the  body  for  use  (for  combustion  for 
the  production  of  heat  and  energy). 

Overfed  hens,  or  those  closely  housed  and  not 
forced  to  work,  or  fed  too  heavily  on  carbohy- 
drates (starchy  feeds)  store  up  much  of  the  sur- 
l)lus  nutrition  in  the  liver  as  well  as  in  other  por- 
tions of  the  abdomen,  especially  in  the  mesentery 
and  in  the  abdominal  walls. 

In  these  cases,  on  autopsy,  the  liver  will  be  found 
to  be  enlarged,  ])rownish  or  grayish-brown  in 
color  (mottled),  friable  (tears  easily),  and  when 
cut  through  appears  ''greasy,"  much  fat  adhering 
to  the  knife  blade.  In  these  cases  rupture  of  the 
liver  often  occurs  when  the  hen  is  stepped  upon 
by  a  large  animal,  is  thrown  or  jumps  a  long  dis- 
tance on  liard  ground  or  a  concrete  floor.  Heavy 
hens  with  clipped  wings  are  prone  to  this  injury. 

In  the  liver,  in  which  excessive  fat  is  stored  up, 
there  is,  after  a  while,  an  encroachment  upon  the 
]n-otoplasm  to  such  an  extent  that  the  cells  can- 
not ])rop('rly  functionate  and  tlien  deatli  of  the 
l>ii(l  may  occur.  In  these  cases  a  microscopic  ex 
aniination  shows  the  nuclei  of  tlic  cells  to  be 
pushed  to  one  side,  and  the  protoplasm  atrophied 


DISEASES  OF  THE  LI\ER  125 

aud   disappearing.     This   is   a  pathological   con- 
ditio n. 

Rupture  of  the  Liver 

In  cases  where  the  liver  is  excessively  congested 
with  blood  or  is  overly  filled  with  fat,  as  men- 
tioned above,  violence  may  result  in  rupture. 

One  case  that  may  be  of  interest  came  to  the  laboratory, 
and  at  autopsy  was  found  to  be  ruptured,  with  considerable 
blood  (hemorrhage)  in  the  abdominal  cavity  (among  the 
intestines).  The  rupture  or  tear  was  about  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  long  and  on  the  left  lobe.  The  organ  was  double 
its  normal  size.  Upon  microscopic  examination  it  was  found 
to  be  congested  and  occasional  small  ruptures  (hemorrhages) 
were  found  throughout  the  liver  substance. 

This  bird  was  in  a  yard  with  a  horse  and  it  is  supposed 
to  have  been  kicked  or  stepped  upon,  as  the  left  side  was 
bruised. 

Congestion  of  the  Liver 

There  are  two  kinds  of  congestion  of  the  liver, 
active  and  passive.  Active  congestion  precedes 
inflammation  and  is  a  state  in  which  the  capillar- 
ies, arterioles  and  arteries  are  engorged  with 
blood.    It  is  caused  by  local  irritation. 

Passive  congestion  of  the  liver  is  usually  due  to 
a  weak  heart  or  a  leaky  valve  between  the  two  cav- 
ities of  the  right  side.  The  blood  backs  up  into 
the  liver,  and  the  central  veins  of  the  lobules  and 
capillaries,  between  the  columns  of  liver  cells,  be- 
come engorged.  It  gives  the  cut  surface  a  pecu- 
liar yellowish  mottled  appearance  called  "nut- 
meg liver,"  from  a  fancied  resemblance  that  it 
bears  to  the  sectional  surface  of  a  nutmeg. 

Inflammation  of  the  Liver 

Inflammation  of  the  liver  may  be  the  result  of 
absorption  of  poisonous  products  from  the  in- 
testines. These  products  (toxins)  lodge  in  the 
liver,  or  the  inflammation  mav  be  due  to  infection 


126  POULTRY  DISEASES 

(germs)  as  in  chicken  cholera.  The  irritation 
causes  active  congestion  followed  by  a  migration 
of  groat  numbers  of  polyiilorphonuclear  leukocytes 
(white  blood  cells)  and  thrombocytes,  constituting 
inflammation.  The  liver  is  enlarged,  dark,  and 
easily  torn;  it  appears  very  full  of  blood. 

In  manj^,  and  in  fact  most,  of  the  contagious 
diseases  /inflammation   of  the   liver    (hepatitis) 
occurs. 

The  following  case  report  will  serve  to  illustrate  these 
cases: 

A  valuable  rooster  was  sent  to  the  small  animal  ward  of 
the  Division  of  Veterinary  Medicine  of  the  Colorado  Agri- 
cultural College  for  treatment.  The  bird  had  been  sprinkled 
with  some  proprietary  lice  killer  and  had  immediately  taken 
ill.  There  was  a  loss  of  appetite  and  it  had  become  weak  in 
the  legs  and  remained  so  till  its  death.  Late  in  the  course 
of  the  trouble  the  bird  was  not  able  to  stand  at  all,  but  lay 
on  its  side.  It  became  emaciated  and  lived  only  about  three 
weeks  after  it  was  taken  sick. 

On  autopsy  the  liver  was  found  to  be  enormously  enlarged, 
weighing  176  grams  (normal  weight  would  have  lieen  about 
forty  grams  for  a  bird  of  that  size).  The  surface  had  a 
grayish  mottled  appearance.  Upon  microscopic  examination 
these  pale  gray,  irregular  areas  proved  to  be  liver  areas 
packed  with  leukocytes  (white  blood  cells)  and  thrombocytes 
— an  aggravated  case  of  hepatitis    (inflammation). 

Another  similar  case  was  brought  to  the  laboratory,  except 
that  it  did  not  have  the  history  of  having  been  sprinkled 
with  an  insect  powder. 

Enterohepatitis 

This  is  a  disease  of  turkeys  and  to  a  less  ex- 
tent of  other  birds,  which  extends  from  the  in- 
testine to  and  involves  the  liver.  It  is  discussed 
under  diseases  of  the  liver.     (See  page  85.) 

Unimportant  Diseases 

Abscesses  and  tumors  of  the  liver  appear  to  be 
very  rare  in  chickens  and  other  fowl.  Sarcomas 
and  carcinomas  (cancers)  of  this  organ  are  usu- 
allv  associated  with  similar  tumors  of  the  ovary. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  LIVER  127 

Jaundice  is  very  rare,  and  appears  to  result  from 
a  loug-continned  mild  congestion  of  the  liver. 

Cercomoniasis  (s]H)tted  liver)  is  a  type  of  dis- 
ease of  the  liver  due  to  infection  {Monocercomo- 
nas  fjaUiuaruni)  that  may  be  associated  with 
severe  diarrheas. 

Aspergillosis  is  a  disease  due  to  a  fungus  (Asper- 
gillus funiigatus,  and  sometimes  other  species). 
It  commonly  aft'ects  the  lungs  (Pneumomycosis, 
which  see),  but  may,  and  occasionally  does,  affect 
the  liver. 


SECTION  IX 

Disease  of  the  Ovary  and 
Oviduct 

Prolapse  or  Eversion  of  the  Oviduct 

This  is  a  common  ailment  of  laying  hens.  Over- 
feeding and  aggravated  constipation  have  been 
found  associated  with  this  condition.  When  the 
eggs  are  large  and  considerable  straining  takes 
place  during  their  passage,  and  in  inflammation 
of  the  mucous  lining  of  the  oviduct  or  egg  canal 
prolapse  or  a  protruding  of  the  mucous  membrane 
through  the  cloaca  may  be  observed.  In  consti- 
pation, the  bowels  becoming  gorged,  and  this  in 
addition  to  the  obstruction  when  the  egg  canal 
contains  one  or  more  developing  eggs,  and  the 
ovary,  being  active,  is  larger  and  adds  to  the  bulk, 
predisposes  to  prolapse. 

This  condition  is  most  often  seen  in  hens  that 
are  heavy  layers.  It  perhaps  occurs  most  often  in 
old  hens.  If  the  prolapsed  or  protrduing  mucous 
membrane  is  allowed  to  extend  through  the  anus, 
it  soon  becomes  inflammed  from  exposure  to  the 
air  and  infection  (germs).  Later  the  parts  may 
become  ulcerated  as  a  result  of  mechanical  injur- 
ies or  the  attack  of  germs. 

Treatment.—  Wash  off  the  accumulated  material 
on  the  vent  feathers  with  clean,  soapy,  warm 
water.  After  cleansing  the  hands,  replace  the 
protruding  mass,  using  on  the  fingers  carbolized 
vaseline,  three  to  five  per  cent  strength.  Keep 
the  hens  on  a  light  diet  for  several  days  so  that 

129 


130  POULTRY  DISEASES 

the  parts  may  have  a  rest  and  the  irritation  caus- 
ing the  trouble  subside.  It  is  best  to  give  only  soft 
feed  and  liquids.  Give  the  hen  a  tablespoonful  of 
olive  oil  and  plenty  of  clean  water. 

Obstruction  of  the  Oviduct   (Egg  Bound) 

This  is  a  connnon  ailment  of  laying  hens,  per- 
haps the  commonest  of  all  discussed  conditions  of 
the  oviduct.  The  poultry  raiser  calls  it  ^'egg 
bound,"  by  which  he  means  there  is  something  in 
the  oviduct  which  the  bird  cannot  force  out. 

The  upper  portion  of  the  oviduct,  or  that  part 
which  receives  the  ovum  (yolk)  as  soon  as  it  is 
fully  formed  in  the  ovary  and  delivered,  is  lined 
with  secreting  cells.  In  this  part  the  albumin 
which  surrounds  the  yolk  is  formed.  Further 
along  the  glands  secrete  the  shell  or  calcium  layer 
after  forming  around  the  mass  a  fibrous  mem- 
brane or  sac.  It  can  be  readily  seen,  for  all  this  lo 
be  brought  about,  means  an  abundant  blood  sup- 
ply. An  inflammation  of  the  egg  duct  (usually 
the  result  of  infection  from  the  digestive  tract  by 
way  of  the  cloaca)  means  an  arrest  of  function  of 
these  glands.  There  are  other  cells  that  secrete 
mucous  which  lubricates  the  passage  way,  and 
these,  too,  are  arrested  in  their  function.  The 
result  is  a  stoppage  of  the  egg. 

Other  causes  are:  Eggs  of  too  large  size,  ex- 
Iiaustion  of  the  bird  and  atony  and  paralysis  of 
muscular  walls  of  the  oviduct  and  vagina,  volvulus 
or  twisting  of  the  oviduct  and  stricture  of  the  ovi- 
duct. Weakened  muscles,  the  result  of  disease,  im- 
proper nourislinient  and  overwork  are  contribut- 
ing factors. 

Symptoms. —  The  hen  goes  frequently  to  the  nest 
and  repeatedly  makes  expulsive  efforts  but  can- 


DISEASES  OF  THE  OVARY  AND  OVIDUCT  131 

not  lay.  If  the  obstruction  is  well  aloug  in  the 
egg  canal  the  egg  may  be  felt  as  a  hard  object  in 
the  posterior  part  of  the  abdomen.  In  many  cases 
the  obstruction  is  so  far  up  the  oviduct  it  cannot 
be  felt  or  seen  and  we  must  depend  for  diagnosis 
upon  the  action  of  the  bird,  which  suffers  acutely 
nnder  these  conditions. 

Treatment.— First  be  sure  that  the  bird  will  not 
lay  the  egg  unaided.  Allow  her  to  remain  quiet 
and  alone  for  a  couple  of  hours ;  she  will  often 
relieve  herself  unaided.  If  it  is  evident  that 
the  bird  must  be  given  help,  wash  tlie  hand 
carefully  with  soap  and  water  and  lubricate  the 
fingers  with  three  to  five  per  cent  carbolized  vase- 
line, which  can  be  secured  at  any  drug  store,  pass 
the  fingers  through  the  anus  and  cloaca  into  the 
egg  canal  and  remove  the  egg.  At  times  the  egg 
is  large  and  it  may  be  necessary  to  break  the  shell 
in  order  to  remove  it.  If  the  egg  is  broken,  make 
sure  that  all  parts  of  the  shell  are  removed.  By 
referring  to  Plate  I  the  relations  of  these  organs 
may  be  seen. 

After  the  removal  of  the  egg  give  the  hen  a 
tablespoonful  of  olive  or  castor  oil  and  place  on 
a  light  feed  for  a  few  days.  Eecovery  usually 
occurs  in  the  simple  uncom.plicated  cases  which 
form  the  majority;  in  complicated  cases  death  is 
often  the  result. 

Rupture  of  the  Oviduct 

This  is  usually  a  complication  of  obstruction  of 
the  oviduct.  It  is  frequently  fatal  in  a  very  short 
time  and  in  such  cases  can  be  diagnosed  only  upon 
postmortem  examination. 

Cause.— Vigorous  contraction  of  the  muscular 
walls  of  the  egg  canal  in  expulsion  efforts  some- 


132  POULTRY  DISEASES 

times  results  iu  a  rupture  of  the  wall.  When  this 
occurs  the  usual  sequel  is  peritonitis  (inflamma- 
tion of  the  serous  lining  of  the  abdominal  cavity) 
and  the  death  of  the  bird.  Disease  processes 
sometimes  so  weaken  the  wall  that  it  gives  way 
under  the  stress  of  natural  contraction. 

Symptoms. — The  hon  ceases  to  lay,  the  abdomen 
becomes  larger  and  often  one  or  more  eggs  can 
be  felt  by  palpating  the  lower  portion  of  the  ab- 
domen. Often  the  hen  is  noted  to  sit  up  penguin- 
like-fashion, walking  with  tail  and  posterior  por 
tion  of  the  abdomen  dragging  the  ground.  There 
is  nothing  to  do  except  to  kill  the  bird.  At  au- 
topsy there  will  be  found  many  yolks  in  the  abdo- 
minal cavity,  possibly  one  or  more  with  shells 
and  x^ossibly  an  inflammation  of  the  lining  of  the 
cavity    (peritoneum). 

Broken  Eggs  in  Oviduct 

Eggs  in  tlie  oviduct,  as  well  as  ova  still  unde- 
livered, are  often  found  broken  as  a  result  of  a 
kick  of  a  large  animal  or  of  the  hen  being  stepped 
upon.  Death  usually  follows,  if  not  immediately 
from  the  injury,  which  breaks  the  egg,  after  sev- 
eral days  as  a  result  of  complicated  obstruction 
of  the  oviduct  resulting  from  the  fibrous  exudate 
thrown  out  about  the  broken  yolk. 

AVe  have  also  studied  cases  of  ruptured  ova  due 
to  heavy  hens  roosting  on  liigli  roosts  and  by 
jumping  upon  the  hard  floor,  causing  rupture  of 
the  larger  forming  yolks  or  ova  or  of  eggs  in  the 
egg  canal. 

Prolapse  of  the  Cloaca 

This  may  occur  in  heavy  laying  hens  that  roost 
on  high  perches  and  fly  a  long  distance  to  the 


DISEASES  OF  THE  OVARY  AND  OVIDUCT  133 

ground,  and  especially  when  the  wings  arc  clipped. 
If  these  birds  are  allowed  low  roosts  and  put  on  a 
light  diet  they  recover.  Some  of  these  conditions 
have  been  studied  in  the  author's  laboratory  and 
the  trouble  overcome  liy  observing  this  rule. 

Abnormal  Eggs 

Many  different  kinds  of  abnormal  eggs  are  pro-, 
duced  by  fowls  owing  to  various  diseased  or  other 
abnormal  conditions  of  the  generative  apparatus. 
Because  of  the  rarity  of  their  occurrence  such 
eggs  are  of  little  importance  to  the  practical  poul- 
try raiser,  but  they  possess  much  interest  for  the 
scientific  investigator. 

Soft-shell  Eggs. —  This  is  a  condition  where  eggs 
are  laid  without  a  sufficient  amount  of  shell  sub- 
stance covering  the  shell  membrane.  The  com- 
monest cause  is  overfeeding,  another  cause  is  the 
lack  of  sufficient  shell-making  material  in  the  feed; 
still  another  cause  is  fright,  which  may  cause  a 
premature  detachment  of  the  yolk. 

The  cause  should  be  remedied  and  the  condition 
will  disappear  without  further  treatment. 

Yolkless  Eggs. — These  are  small  eggs,  in  which 
the  albumen  and  shell  is  formed  about  a  small  por- 
tion of  detached  yolk,  a  minute  piece  of  hardened 
albumen  or  a  bit  of  coagulated  blood  instead  of 
the  normal  yolk. 

Double  and  Triple  Yolk  Eggs. —  These  eggs  with 
two  yolks  are  common.  They  are  caused  by  two 
yolks  getting  into  the  oviduct  and  being  enclosed 
together  in  the  albumen  and  shell.  Three-yolked 
eggs,  which  are  rare,  have  a  similar  origin. 

Bloodspecks,  Blood  Rings,  Egg  Inclusions. —  These 
have  little  significance;  particles  of  coagulated 
blood,  due  to  hemorrhage  when  the  ovum  (yolk) 


134  POULTRY  DISEASES 

is  (lis(.'liai"^t'(l  J'rom  the  oxary,  arc  most  common, 
hut  luuips  of  bacteria,  worms,  t'ccal  matter,  etc., 
have  ])e<Mi  fouiid. 

Bhjod  clots  may  l)e  found  in  either  the  yolk  or 
white  (albumen). 

If  hemorrha,c:e  occurs  in  the  yolk,  the  clot  has 
formed  in  tlie  ovary  before  it  was  delivered  into 
the  oviduct.     If  tlie  ch)t  is  in  tlu»  white  it  has  oc 
curred   in   tlie   U))i»er   poi'tion   of  the  oviduct. 


SECTIONIX 

Tumors 

Tumors  of  various  kinds  affect  birds,  but  are 
less  common  tlian  in  higher  animal  life.    There  is 


Fig.   43.     Hematoma   of   Ovary   ix   a   Hen    (natural   size) 
A,    Diseased    ova.      E,    sectioned    surface    of    two    of    the    blood    tumors. 

almost  no  literature  on  the  subject.    The  following 
reports  from  the  author's  laboratory  are  given 

US 


136  POULTRY  DISEASES 

J'or   llicir   iiilorcst,   I'atlicr   Hum    tlicir   utilitarian 
valno. 

Hematoma,  Blood  Tumors 

Occassioually  considerable  liemoj-rliage  takes 
place  in  the  ova  as  tlioy  are  in  process  of  forma- 
tion. These  fail  to  find  their  way  into  the  oviduct 
and  become  hematoma,  or  blood  tumors.  Fig.  43 
illnstrates  one  of  these  cases,  natural  size.  The 
sectioned  surfaces  of  two  of  the  tmnors  is  shown. 

Exciting-  causes,  like  those  that  cause  inflamma- 
tion and  congestion,  are  present.  A  rupture  of  a 
small,  congested  vessel  causes  the  clot.  Ergot  in 
small  quantities  should  be  given  to  combat  the  con- 
dition. 

Multiple  Tumors  of  the  Ovary 

One  of  the  connnonest  of  tumors  consists  of 
yolks,  or  ova,  which  have  formed,  but  failed  to 
enter  the  oviduct.  Later  these  masses  become 
hard  and  irregular  in  shape,  yellowish  in  color, 
and  consisting  of  dried  (inspissated)  yolks  form- 
ing concentric  layers.  Fig.  44  illustrates  one  of 
these  cases,  natural  size. 

Cystic  Ovary 

C'ystomas,  or  cysts,  are  found  at  times  in  the 
ovaries.  These  cysts  are  apparently  imperfectly 
developed  ova  varying  in  size,  and  contain  a  color- 
loss  liquid.  Thoy  are  attached  to  tlio  ovarian  mass 
by  pedicles. 

Sarcoma 

Sarcomas  are  a  type  of  malignant  tumors;  that 
is,  they  spread  much  in  the  manner  as  cancers 
(carcinoma).  They  are  fatal  in  time.  The  flesh 
of  birds  affected  with  sarcoma  should  not  be  eaten. 

A  case  of  sarcoma  was  studied  by  the  writer,  in 


TUMORS 


137 


Fig.  44.     Multiple  Tumors  of  Ovary  in  a  Hen-   (natural  size) 
A,    Ova   that   have    undergone    degeneration.      Xote   the   pedicle-like 
structure   joining  to   the   ovarian  mass. 


138  POULTRY  DISEASES 

wliicli  tlic  iiniiors  iiivoKcd  llio  oNury,  intestines, 
peritoncnni  (liiiin.u'  of  llic  abdominal  cavity)  and 
tlie  liver,  ''riiese  tumors  vary  in  size,  are  whitisli- 
yellow.  and  soft  wlien  sectioned. 

Adenoma 

An  adenoma  is  a  tumor  that  has  some  resem 
blanoe  to  a  normal  gland.  It  is  made  up  of  con- 
nective tissue  and  asini,  or  cavities,  lined  by  col- 
umnar or  cuboidal  cells.  One  tumor  of  this  type 
afl'ectiug  tlie  spleen  of  a  hen  was  sent  to  the  labora- 
tory.    Tlu'  s])leen  was  about  twice  normal  size. 

Lymphosarcoma 

This  is  a  malignant  ty])e  of  tumor.  One  case, 
affecting  tlie  heart  of  a  chicken  was  sent  to  the 
laboratory.  The  heart  was  about  normal  size, 
and  when  cut  showed  small,  roundish,  clear  areas. 
These  proved  to  be  small  tumors  Hint  couu'  un- 
der this  heading. 

Epithelioma 

This  is  a  type  of  cancer.  One  hen  was  brought 
to  the  laboratory  with  the  history  that  she  had  a 
"growth"  on  the  side  of  the  head  for  several 
months.  The  tumor  was  flat  and  about  one  inch 
in  diameter.  A  microscopic  examination  revealed 
it  to  be  an  epithelioma. 


SECTION  XI 

Diseases  of  the  Respiratory 
Passages 

In  the  fall,  winter  and  spring,  tliese  diseases  are 
a  sconrge  to  tlie  poultry  raiser,  unless  strict  san- 
itation is  observed. 

Obstruction  of  the  Trachea 

This  is  uncommon,  except  as  a  result  of  gape- 
worm  infestation.  Fig.  45  illustrates  a  case  that 
was  sent  to  the  laboratory  with  the  statement  that 
it  had  ''gapes."  This  bird  would  extend  its 
head  high  into  the  air,  gasping  for  breath  as  one 
whose  trachea  is  obstructed  by  gapeworms ;  it  was 
weak  and  unable  to  stand  squarely  upon  its  feet. 
It  was  destroyed  for  examination.  A  piece  of  a 
grain  of  corn  was  found  in  the  trachea,  surrounded 
by  an  accumulation  of  mucus  caused  by  the  irrita- 
tion its  presence  in  the  trachea  caused.  The  for- 
eign body  and  the  accumulated  mucus  were  ob- 
structing the  passage  of  air  to  the  lungs ;  hence,  the 
asphyxiation. 

Catarrh,  Colds 

Cause. —  Sudden  changes  in  the  weather,  cold, 
damp  weather,  roosting  in  draughts,  and  chilling 
by  getting  wet  in  cold  rains  is  often  a  factor  in  the 
production  of  catarrh  among  birds.  Such  af- 
fections are  more  or  less  contagious,  but  bad  san- 
itation plays  an  important  part  in  their  spread. 
Weak  stock  and  poorly  nourished  birds  are  pre- 
disposed to  this  contagion. 

139 


140  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Symptoms. — The  appetite  may  be  somewhat  dim- 
inished. The  bird  sneezes,  throws  its  head  and 
may  expel  some  mucus.  The  discharge  at  first  is 
watery  and  later  becomes  more  or  less  thick 
(muco-purulent).  Tlie  eyes  may  show  more  or 
less  inflammation  (conjunctivitis)  and  the  eyelids 


Fig.    45.     Obstruction    of    the    Trache.v 

A,    Showing    depression     (drooping    wings,    inability    to    stand,    etc.)      from 

partial  asphyxiation.     B,  same  chicken  shown  in  "A,"  just  before  death. 

may  become  adherent.  The  characteristic  offens- 
ive order  of  roup  is  absent. 

Treatment. — The  same  treatment  as  outlined  un- 
der roup  (see  page  153)  has  given  us  uniformly 
good  results. 

The  following  report  of  one  of  the  experiments 
by  Mr.  Coulton,  under  the  direction  of  the  author, 


RESPIRATORY    DISEASES  141 

illustrates  the  course  and  treatment  of  colds  in 
birds : 

With  the  advent  of  cold  weather,  early  last  fall,  a  large 
number  of  our  chickens  contracted  colds,  which  was  ex- 
tremely discouraging,  to  say  the  least.  We  had  over  one 
hundred  chickens,  besides  turkeys,  and  fully  twenty-five  per 
cent  were  affected  at  one  time.  In  addition  to  the  colds  which 
affected  the  throat,  nostrils  and  eyes,  many  were  affected 
with  canker  in  the  mouth.  The  ordinary  remedies,  kerosene, 
roup  cures,  etc.,  were  all  used,  with  little  effect.  We  finally 
secured  from  the  drug  store  (at  the  suggestion  of  Doctor 
Kaupp)  some  sulphocarbolates  compound  tablets  and  used 
them,  but  the  improvement  was  not  very  marked.  Later 
tablets  furnished  by  the  Pathological  Laboratory  of  the  Colo- 
rado Agricultural  College  (sulphocarbolates  compound,  thirty 
grains,  with  six  grains  bichloride  of  mercury  to  the  tablet) 
were  tried.  This  was  not  only  placed  in  the  drinking  water, 
but  a  solution  was  used  in  a  syringe  to  wash  out  the  nos- 
trils and  mouth.  This  treatment  was  marvelously  effective. 
It  acted  like  a  charm.  The  catarrhal  condition  continued, 
however,  until  the  following  treatment  was  used  (also  at 
the  suggestion  of  Doctor  Kaupp) : 

The  nostrils  were  washed  out  with  a  twenty  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  common  baking  soda;  then  with  peroxide  of  hydrogen, 
and  finally,  with  the  following  preparation:  Oil  of  eucalyp- 
tus, twenty  drops;  oil  of  thyme,  one  dram,  and  petrol  oil, 
two  ounces.  A  warm  solution  of  the  soda  was  always  used 
and  the  other  materials  were  warmed  by  setting  the  bottles 
in  hot  water.  This  treatment  was  also  applied  to  the  eyes, 
and  the  ulcers  in  the  mouth  were  swabbed  with  it.  The  re- 
sults were  remarkable.  It  was  almost  impossible  to  make  a 
record  of  these  cases,  as  a  large  portion  of  the  flock  were 
affected.  Furthermore,  it  was  impossible  to  give  them  all 
the  daily  treatment  prescribed.  Sometimes  they  would  go 
several  days  without  treatment.  In  mild  cases,  however,  from 
two  to  three  applications  affected  a  cure. 

March  17th  we  found  a  young  cockerel  in  a  very  roupy 
condition.  He  had  been  hatched  late  in  the  fall  and  had 
never  been  very  vigorous.  His  eyes  were  swollen  shut, 
nostrils  discharging  badly,  and,  with  all,  his  was  not  a  prom- 
ising case.  We  isolated  him  and  gave  him  the  regulation 
treatment,  as  described  above.  Notwithstanding  that  it 
stormed  severely  and  he  was  not  well  feathered,  the  next  day 
he  was  showing  a  decided  improvement,  and  after  three  treat- 
ments, covering  about  five  days,  all  evidence  of  the  trouble 
had  disappeared  and  to-day  he  is  apparently  in  better  con- 
dition than  at  any  time  during  the  winter. 

A  day  or  two  later  we  found  two  others  belonging  to  the 
same  brood  in  about  the  same  condition  and  after  one  treat- 
ment there  was  evidence  of  improvement,  but  after  a  few 
days,  not  having  been   able  to  give  them  careful  attention 


142  POULTRY  DISEASES 

or  regular  treatment,  they  seemed  to  be  worse,  and  we  used 
the  hatchet  treatment.  I  am  satisfied,  however,  from  our 
experience,  both  with  chickens  and  the  turkeys,  when  taken 
in  time  and  treated  regularly,  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  lose 
one.  We  estimated  that  we  saved  ninety-five  per  cent  of  those 
affected,  by  this  treatment. 

Bronchitis 

in  SOUR'  east's  wu  have  noted  eatarrli  com- 
mencing in  the  head,  principally  the  nasal  cham- 
bers, extend  down  and  involve  the  trachea  (wind- 
pipe), and  even  to  the  bronchi  (branches  of  the 
trachea  leading  to  the  Inng  tissue).  Sudden 
changes  in  the  weather,  dampness  and  roosting 
near  a  crack  in  tlie  henhouse  so  that  a  cold  wind 
blows  upon  them,  or,  in  fact,  in  any  draught,  are 
the  principal  causes  of  bronchitis. 

Symptoms. — A  rattling  sound  may  be  heard  in 
the  region  of  the  trachea  and  bronchi  (neck  and 
anterior  part  of  the  thorax).  The  bird  may  be 
seen  to  gasp  for  air  by  extending  the  head  up- 
ward. This  is  due  to  an  accumulation  of  mucus 
in  the  air  passages  which  partially  closes  them, 
thus  preventing  the  bird  from  getting  enough  oxy- 
gen into  its  lungs.  The  affected  bird  coughs,  and 
there  may  be  dullness  and  partial  loss  of  appetite. 

The  condition  may  pass  off  in  a  few  days,  may 
respond  to  treatment,  or  may  last  for  several 
weeks  and  end  in  recovery  or  in  death.  In  the 
latter  case  there  is  marked  emaciation;  in  the 
former  the  bird  coughs  up  mucus  for  a  long  time, 
l)ut  otherwise  appears  well. 

Treatment. — A  tablespoonful  of  castor  oil,  to 
which  5  to  10  drops  of  turpentine  have  been  added, 
and  if  catarrh  be  present,  treatment  as  outlined 
under  roup.  Give  one-grain  doses  quinine  sul- 
])liate  three  times  a  day.  Place  the  l)ird  in  warm, 
clean,  comfortable  quarters,  free  from  draughts. 


RESPIRATORY    DISEASES  143 

Give  plenty  of  clean  water  and  soft  feed  (bread  or 
middlings  moistened  witli  milk),  to  which  has 
been  added  2  grains  of  black  antimony  for  each 
bird.     Feed  twice  daily. 

Congestion  of  the  Lungs 

This  is  an  engorgement  of  the  blood  vessels  of 
the  lungs.  Congestion  of  the  Inngs  is  quite  apt 
to  develop  into  pneumonia,  of  which  it  may  be  said 
to  be  the  first  stage.  It  has  been  observed  in 
young  birds  and  in  birds  during  their  moulting 
season,  when  they  are  poorly  clad  with  feathers 
and  exposed  to  inclement  weather. 

Young  chicks  that  are  allowed  to  run  out  in  the 
early  morning  and  become  wet  with  cold  dew,  and 
chicks  allowed  to  become  wet  with  the  cold  spring 
rains  and  become  chilled,  are  likely  to  suffer  from 
congestion  of  the  lungs  and  pneumonia. 

A  contraction  of  the  blood  vessels  of  the  skin 
and  periphera  forces  an  abnormal  amount  of  blood 
to  the  internal  organs,  and  congestion  is  the  re- 
sult. Improper  feeding  and  lack  of  exercise  are 
also  contributing  factors.  Birds  having  this  ail- 
ment will  be  noted  to  be  sleepy  and  stupid,  and  to 
breathe  rapidly.  In  some  cases  the  breathing  is 
difficult.  The  comb  becomes  bluish  and  the  bird 
may  die  because  it  cannot  get  enough  air  into  the 
lungs  (asphyxiation).  Upon  postmortem  exami- 
nation the  lungs  will  be  found  engorged  with  blood. 

The  pressure  of  the  blood  in  the  engorged  blood 
vessels  of  the  lungs  may  close  the  smaller  air 
passages  which  they  surround,  or  may  burst  their 
thin  walls  and  fill  the  bronchi  with  blood.  In 
either  case  rapid  asphyxiation  occurs. 

Treatment. — Congestion  of  the  lungs  runs  an  ex- 
ceedingly rapid  course,  terminating  in  recovery, 


144  POULTRY    DISEASES 

pneumonia,  or  death.  Treatment  is  impractical. 
The  ailment  slionld  be  prevented  by  good  feedinic 
and  adequate  protection  from  cold  or  wet  weather. 

Pneumonia — Inflammation  of  the    Lungs 

Bronchitis,  described  in  the  foregoing,  often 
lerminates  in  pneumonia  (broncho-pneumonia).  It 
has  been  the  experience  of  the  writer  that  broncho- 
pneumonia, following  an  attack  of  bronchitis,  is 
the  commonest  form  of  the  disease. 

The  causes  of  pneumonia  are  the  same  as  the 
causes  of  colds  and  bronchitis,  except  that  the  ex- 
posure is  often  more  severe.  There  is  also  a  typo 
of  pneumonia  mentioned  under  the  discussion  of 
internal  parasites  that  is  due  to  a  mold — usually 
the  Aspergillus  fumigatus;  the  condition  it  pro- 
duces is  teclmically  known  as  aspergillosis. 

Symptoms. — There  is  an  entire  loss  of  appetite, 
with  thirst  and  constipation.  The  bird  stands 
with  the  head  drawn  in,  drooping  wings  and  ruf- 
fled feathers;  breathing  is  rapid  and  painful,  and 
there  may  or  may  not  be  coughing.  There  is  usu- 
ally a  discharge  of  thick,  adhesive  mucus  from  the 
nostrils;  the  eyes  may  be  inflamed  and  water 
freely.  The  bird  has  every  appearance  of  severe 
illness. 

Treatment. — Except  in  the  case  of  birds  of  un- 
usual value,  treatment  is  wholly  impractical,  owing 
to  the  amount  of  care  and  nursing  necessary  and 
because  of  the  doubtful  outcome. 

If  treatment  is  undertaken,  the  birds  should  be 
warmly  housed  and  the  best  of  ventilation  main- 
tained. Sjiirits  of  camphor,  2  drops,  and  brandy. 
K)  drops,  should  be  given  hourly  in  a  teaspoonful 
of  warm  milk ;  if  the  comb  becomes  dark,  add  digi 


RESPIRATORY    DISEASES  145 

talis,  one  drop  of  the  fluid  extract  to  the  medi- 
cation. 

Autopsy. Upon  opening  the  bird  that  has  died 

from  penumonia,  the  affected  part  of  the  Imig 
will  be  found  to  be  dark  red,  and  when  cut 
through  it  is  liver-like  in  appearance  and  texture. 
Serum  (yellowish  fluid)  and  blood  may  exude 
from  the  surface. 

Pneumomycosis  -Aspergillosis 

This  disease  is  due  to  a  fungus  belonging  to  the 
genus  aspergillus,  an  organism  similar  to  the 
common  green  molds.  The  species  that  usually 
affects  the  lungs  of  birds  is  the  Aspergillus 
fumigatus. 

Symptoms. — The  affected  birds  are  sluggish  and 
stay  apart  from  the  remainder  of  the  flock;  they 
sit  about  on  the  roosts,  or  in  some  corner;  are 
very  weak,  and  later  become  unable  to  stand. 
There  is  a  loss  of  appetite;  the  feathers  have  an 
unkempt  appearance;  the  wings  are  drooping 
and  the  eyes  partially  closed.  The  respiration 
is  accelerated  and  there  is  a  rattling  of  mucus 
in  the  trachea  and  bronchi.  Fever  is  present,  and 
there  is  ordinarih'  considerable  thirst.  The  af- 
fected bird  usually  dies  after  a  prolonged  illness. 

Postmortem  Appearance.— Wliitish  or  yellowish 
nodules,  varying  in  size  up  to  a  pea,  will  be  noted 
in  the  affected  parts ;  which  may  be  the  trachea, 
bronchi,  lungs  and  the  various  air  sacs.  The 
fungus  may  grow  upon  the  surface  of  the  mucous 
membranes  forming,  at  first,  a  feltlike  whitish 
mass  which  takes  on  color  according  to  the  spe- 
cies of  the  fungus  as  it  fruits  (forms  spores). 
This  membranous  material,  to  the  naked  eye,  re- 
sembles a  fibropurulent  exudate.     The  obstruc- 


146  POULTRY  DISEASES 

tion  of  the  air  sacs  causes  the  difficult  breathing 
and  asphyxiation. 

Inflammation  is  evident  in  the  diseased  areas. 
Sections  through  these  areas  of  disease  show  tlie 
mvcelia  (thread-like  brandies  of  the  mold)  and 
the  characteristic  fruit  (spores).  Focal  necrosis, 
preceded  by  cloudy  swelling,  is  noted  in  the  kid- 
neys and  other  vital  organs.  A  secondary  in- 
vasion of  pus-producing  organisms  may  take 
place  and  on  autopsy  abscesses  may  be  found  in 
the  liver,  kidneys,  spleen  and  other  organs. 

Treatment. — This  is  a  difficult  problem.  Placing 
the  affected  birds  in  a  close  box  and  smoking  them 
with  tar  has  been  advocated.  Efforts  should  be 
made  to  eradicate  the  disease  from  the  premises 
by  cleaning  and  disinfecting  them  as  for  rou])  and 
other  infectious  diseases.   (See  pages  24  and  153.) 

Swell-Head  in  Young  Turkeys 

The  most  characteristic  sjTnptoms  of  this  ail- 
ment is  swelling  of  certain  parts  of  the  head, 
especially  in  the  region  of  the  maxillary  or  in- 
fraorbital sinus,  which  becomes  filled  with  a  gela- 
tinous, colorless  substance.  (For  location  of  tliis 
sinus  see  Plate  I,  No.  31.) 

These  swellings  may  disappear  in  a  few  days  or 
weeks  or  may  remain  for  several  months.  In  the 
latter  instance  the  swelling  may  contain  a  cheesy 
material  of  foul  odor,  and  in  some  cases  cause 
death. 

Treatment. — Open  the  swollen  part  and  allow 
the  morbid  collection  to  drain  out.  In  addition, 
use  the  same  treatment  as  outlined  under  roup. 
(See  page  153.) 


RESPIRATORY    DISEASES  147 

Chickenpox— Contagious  Epithelioma 

This  disease  affects  chickens,  turkeys,  pigeons 
and  geese. 

Cause. — Some  investigators  claim  that  it  is  due 
to  an  ultra-microscopic  virus  (germ)  and  that  the 
same  germ  is  also  the  cause  of  avian  diphtheria,  or 
roup.  (An  ultra-microscopic  germ  is  one  that  will 
pass  through  the  pores  of  porcelain  filters  and  can- 
not be  seen  with  the  microscope  or  grown  in  visi- 
ble quantities  upon  culture  media.)  There  are 
just  as  many  investigators  who  are  certain  that 
their  results  show  that  the  germ  causing  these 
(pox  and  roup)  are  not  the  same,  and  that  the 
infection  one  time  will  not  produce  roup  and  at 
another  chickenpox  (contagious  epithelioma).  Our 
experiments  do  not  lead  us  to  the  conclusion  that 
they  are  the  same  disease;  that  is,  caused  by  the 
same  germ. 

In  structure  the  nodules  resemble  an  epithe- 
lioma, described  under  that  heading  in  the  section 
on  tumors,  and  in  that  contagious  chickenpox  can 
be  transmitted  from  an  emulsion  of  the  material 
of  a  pox  nodule,  by  inoculating  the  face  and  comb 
of  a  healthy  bird. 

It  has  been  proven  that  a  maceration  of  the 
scrapings  from  the  pox  in  physiological  salt  solu- 
tion and  injected  subcutaneously,  will  render  im- 
munity against  further  inoculation  of  the  disease 
by  sacrification  and  introduction  of  the  virus  in 
the  face  and  comb. 

One  investigator  has  claimed  that  chickenpox 
is  due  to  a  protozoon  (an  animal  parasite  micro- 
scopic in  size),  but  other  investigators  have  failed 
to  find  this  organism. 

Symptoms. — The  disease  appears  as  small  nod- 
ules, varying  pin-point  size  up  to  the  size  of  a  pea. 


148 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


or  oveu  miidi  larger.  It  may  be  accompanied  l)y 
roup;  in  fact,  we  have  studied  both  diseases  in  th" 
same  flock,  an  occurrence  wliicli  is  not  uncommon. 
The  question  naturally  arises,  are  both  due  to  fil- 
terable viruses  (germs  so  small  that  they  pass 
through  porcelain  filters,  and  too  small  to  be  seen 
through  a  microscope),  and  are  both  present  in 


Fic.   46.     CiricKEN  Vox 
A,    Epithelial,    tumor  like    iioilulcs.       1'.,    an     ulcer. 

the  same  outbreak,  or  are  both  due  to  the  same 
cause?  At  the  present  time  there  are  conflicting 
reports  by  scientific  men.  Fig.  46  illustrates  a 
case  of  this  disease. 

One  investigator  has  reported  that  immunity 
against  chickenpox  does  not  confer  immunity  to 
roup. 

Haring  and  Kofoid  have  shown  that  there  is  a  specific 
antibody  developed   in   birds  affected   with  chickenpox.     By 


RESPIRATORY    DISEASES  149 

the  use  of  the  complementfixation  method  (a  test  similar  to 
oue  used  in  the  diagnosis  of  glanders)  the  blood  from  the 
diseased  fowl  exhibited  fixation  of  the  complement  not  shown 
by  normal  fowl  blood.  Thus  showing  that  it  is  a  specific 
germ  disease.  The  antigen  was  prepared  both  from  the 
tumors  on  the  head  and  from  the  liver  of  birds  sick  of  the 
disease. 

Treatment.— The  same  sanitary  regulations 
s^honld  be  put  into  force  as  under  fowl  cholera.  No 
birds  should  be  sold  from  the  flock  while  the  dis- 
ease exists  among  them.  Cleaning  of  yards  and 
liouses  and  keeping  them  clean,  as  well  as  frequent 
disinfection,  is  essential.  Antiseptics,  as  recom- 
mended under  cholera,  may  be  given  in  the  feed 
and  water.  The  head  of  the  affected  bird  should 
l)e  bathed  in  an  antiseptic  solution. 

Roup— Diphtheric  Roup— Swelled  Head 

The  cause  of  this  disease  seems  to  be  far  from 
settled.  European  investigators  liave  claimed  it 
due  to  an  ultra-microscopic  germ  (one  so  small 
it  cannot  be  seen  under  the  microscope).  With  a 
view  of  determining  whether  or  not  the  type  exist- 
ing in  Colorado  is  due  to  an  ultra-microscopic  or- 
ganism, two  sick  hens  were  secured  for  experi 
ment. 

Report  of  Outbreak  of  Diphtheric  Roup 

These  birds  had  swollen  eyes  with  an  accumulation  of 
catarrhal  or  inflammatory  product  in  the  maxillary  sinus 
(cavity  below  and  in  front  of  the  eye)  and  a  discharge  from 
the  nostrils  of  an  offensive  odor  characteristic  of  roup.  There 
were  also  the  characteristic  yellowish-white  diphtheric  mem- 
branes in  the  mouth.  Material  from  all  the  lesions  of  both 
birds  was  made  into  a  suspension  with  physiological  salt 
solution  and  filtered  through  a  Pasteur  filter  calculated  to 
take  out  all  germs  that  can  be  seen  by  aid  of  the  microscope 
or  grown  on  artificial  media. 

The  fiuid  that  passed  through  this  filter  was  used  in  in- 
oculating experimental  birds.  These  birds  were  from  flocks 
in  which  no  roup  had  appeared.  In  all  fifteen  inoculations 
were  made.    Tubes  of  culture  media  were  inoculated  with  the 


150  POULTRY  DISEASES 

filtrate  and  incubated  seventy-two  hours  and  no  growth  of 
germs  occurred  on  any  of  the  tubes;  (his  shows  that  all  visible 
germs  were  taken  out.  Smears  of  the  filtrate  were  made 
and  stained  and  an  examination  of  these  likewise  gave  nega- 
tive results.  In  none  of  tliese  inoculations  did  roup  appear. 
So  far  as  this  one  experiment  goes,  it  appears  that  our  type 
of  roup  is  not  due  to  an  ultramicroscoplc  germ.  This  type 
of  roup  is  quite  contagious. 

Marx  produced  a  yellowish-diptheritic  membrane  by  inject- 
ing pox  emulsion  into  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth 
and  eye  of  a  bird. 

The  report  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
for  1910  an  account  of  the  isolation  of  the  Bacillus  necro- 
phorus  from  the  ulcers  in  one  outbreak  (this  Is  the  germ 
that  causes  necrotic  stomatitis  in  hogs  and  sheep,  gangerous 
dermatitis  in  horses,  diphtheria  in  calves,  and  many  other 
pathologic  conditions  in  other  animals),  in  another  outbreak 
the  Bacillus  aviscpticiis  (the  germ  of  fowl  cholera)  was  found, 
and  in  still  another  outbreak  a  coccidium  appeared  to  be  the 
cause.  The  Bacillus  pijori/ancus  has  also  been  isolated  by 
another  investigator  as  has  also  a  short,  rod-shaped  germ 
with  rounded  ends  called  the  Bacillus  cacosmtis.  It  would 
thus  appear  that  several  germs  play  a  more  or  less  im- 
portant part  in  the  causation  of  roup.  Other  germs  have 
been  reported  from  time  to  time  as  having  been  associated 
with  this  disease,  so  that  with  the  reports  before  us  from 
scientific  laboratories  we  cannot  point,  as  yet,  to  any  certain 
germ  as  the  cause. 

Mode  of  Spread. — This  disease  is  spread  by  birds 
introduced  into  a  flock  from  infected  premsies,  and 
by  exposure,  as  at  poultry  shows.  A  chronic  type 
of  the  disease  in  one  or  more  birds  (carriers)  in  a 
flock  may  serve  to  infect  others  when  they  are 
weakened  by  predisposing  causes,  as  by  exposure 
to  cold  or  dampness,  or  by  roosting  in  a  draught, 
or  in  badly  ventilated  buildings. 

Symptoms. — There  are  three  forms  of  the  dis- 
ease, that  is,  three  forms  of  lesions.  Any  or  all 
may  be  present  in  the  same  bird. 

1.  The  nasal  type. — This  t.vpe  is  characterized 
at  first  by  a  thin,  watery  discharge  with  an  offens- 
ive odor  characteristic  of  roup.  Later  the  ca- 
tarrhal product  becomes  somewhat  thicker  (muco- 
purulent) and  the  nostrils  become  occluded  (glued 


RESPIRATORY    DISEASES 


151 


shut),  aud  quite  frequently  there  is  a  bulging  of 
the  sinus  (eavity)  in  front  and  below  the  eye.  This 
is  due  to  an  accumulation  of  the  inflammatory  pro- 
ducts in  this  sinus.  Fig.  47  illustrates  this  com- 
mon swelling. 

2.  The  diphtheric  type. — This  type  affects  the 
mouth.  This  often  accompanies  the  nasal  form. 
Fig.  48  illustrates  these  diphtheric  ulcerations, 
which  are  vellowish  or  vello wish-white  in  color. 


Fir,.    47.      Roup    i.v    A    I 
A,     Bulging    of    infraorbital    or    maxillary    sinus. 

From  these  necrosing  patches  the  disease  receives 
its  name,  avian  diphtheria. 

o.  The  ocular  type. — In  this  form  there  is  first 
noted  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane 
covering  the  anterior  portion  of  the  eyeball  (con- 
junctivitis). As  the  disease  progresses,  the  ca- 
tarrhal product  accumulates  as  a  watery,  clot-like 
mass,  whitish  in  color.  The  eyelids  stick  together 
and  hold  the  material  as  it  accmnulates,  till  the 
part  bulges  outward. 

There  is  noted  sneezing,  shaking  the  head,  and 


152 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


expulsion  of  imic'us.  Tlierc  is  a  loss  oL'  a])p('tite, 
the  bird  appears  weak,  walks  iinstoadily,  and  be- 
comes eniacitited  rapidly.  At,  times  brcntiiing  is 
difficult,  and  tbere  is  often  a  diarrbea. 

Tliree  stages  tben  follow:  eatarrlial,  cbaraeter 
ized  by  a  mucus,  or  muco-purulent,  discharge;  the 
diphtheric,  affecting  the  mouth   and  tliroat  and 


Fig.    48.     Diphtheric    Kocp    in    a   Chicken 

A,   Tlie   ycllowisli-whilc   diphlluiic   patches   on   upper  surface   of   tongue 

and  lower  jaw   (natural  size). 

B,   diphtheric   patches  on    hard   palate   and   upper  jaw. 

characterized  by  the  formation  of  a  membrane  on 
the  surface  which  may  be  followed  later  by  slough- 
ing (formation  of  a  mass  of  dead  tissue) ;  and  the 
conjunctival,  affecting  the  eyes,  and  often  causing 
a  destruction  of  the  eyeball. 

Postmortem  Appearance— The      toxin      (poison) 
from  the  areas  of  disease  is  very  destructive,  as 


RESPIRATORY    DISEASES  153 

the  rapid  emaciation  of  the  bird  following  a  se- 
vere attack,  shows.  Upon  examination  of  the 
membranes  that  have  formed  in  the  mouth,  it  will 
be  fonnd  that  when  they  are  removed  there  is 
left  a  raw,  granular  appearing  surface.  Upon 
microscopic  examination,  cellular  infiltration  is 
seen,  with  a  destruction  of  cells  of  the  mucous 
membrane  underlying  the  diptheric  patch.  An  ex- 
amination of  the  maxillary  (suborbital)  sinus  (see 
Plate  I,  No.  31)  will  reveal  it  to  be  filled  with  a 
purulent  material,  which  is  often  cheesy-like  in 
consistency.  The  wall  over  this  part  is  very  thin 
and  can  be  easily  opened  with  a  knife. 

A  microscopic  study  of  sections  of  the  head, 
through  the  inflamed  area  (the  mucous  lining  of 
tlie  nasal  passage)  shows  considerable  thickening 
and  an  acute  inflammation  (invasion  of  poh/mor- 
phonuclear  leiiJcoci/tes) ;  at  times  the  entire  pas- 
sage is  ''plugged"  with  the  mucus. 

On  examination  of  the  eye  and  mucous  mem- 
brane surrounding  the  anterior  portion  of  the  eye- 
ball, there  may  be  seen  a  cloudy  condition  of  the 
cornea,  the  anterior  iDortion  of  the  ball  (keratitis). 
There  is  also  an  acute  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  eye  (acute  conjunctivitis). 

In  cases  studied  in  this  laboratory  it  has  been 
found  that  the  acute  inflammation  extends  to  the 
iris  and  ciliary  muscles  and  their  surrounding 
structures. 

Treatment. — Correct  any  bad  sanitation  or  hy- 
giene, which  may  be  a  predisposing  cause.  The 
henhouse  should  be  well  ventilated,  but  should  al- 
low no  draughts  on  the  birds,  and  should  be  kept 
clean  and  free  from  dampness.  It  should  be 
cleaned  and  disinfected  daily  with  some  of  the 
mixtures  heretofore  described  and  recommended 


154  POULTRY  DISEASES 

lor  this  pmpose.  If  llio  bird  is  not  a  valuable 
one,  kill  and  cremate  it,  the  liead  as  well  as  the 
l)ody. 

Medicinal  treatment  differs,  with  the  location  of 
the  lesion.  For  the  ulcers,  or  diptheric  patches, 
in  the  month,  nothing  is  better  than  burning  with 
stick  silver  nitrate  (lunar  caustic).  A  solution 
cannot  be  used,  as  the  fluid  will  run  down  and 
])nrn  other  parts  of  the  mouth  and  throat. 

With  the  thumb  and  finger  press  open  the 
eyelids  and  with  clean  absorbent  cotton  remove 
the  white  catarrhal  material,  then  apply  the  same 
remedy  as  for  injection  into  the  nostrils.  The 
following  has  given  good  results  in  our  experi- 
mental work  and  with  those  to  whom  we  have  rec- 
ommended it: 

Wash  out  the  nasal  passage  with  a  twenty  per 
cent  solution  of  sodium  bicarbonate  (common 
baking  soda),  using  a  medicine  dropper  or,  better, 
a  small  syringe,  as  the  material  must  be  forced 
so  as  to  pass  through  the  nasal  passage  into  the 
mouth  (refer  to  Plate  I,  Nos.  29  to  33,  and  to  Fig. 
50).  Then  inject,  in  like  manner,  peroxide  of 
hydrogen.  The  soda  dissolves  and  removes  the 
mucus,  and  the  peroxide  of  hydrogen  cleans  out 
the  cavity.  The  parts  should  then  be  cleansed 
with  essential  oils,  which  may  be  applied  directly 
to  the  inflamed  mucous  membranes.  Inject  a 
quantity  of  the  following: 

Oil  of  thyme 1  dram 

Oil  of  eucalyptus 20  drops 

Oil  of  petrol 2  ounces 

In  aggravated  cases,  repeat  this  treatment  three 
times  a  day.  Give  an  abundance  of  clean  water 
and  soft,  easily  digested  feed. 


RESPIRATORY    DISEASES 


155 


Fig.    49.     Skiagraph    of   Head   and    Neck   of    Chicken 
A,    Trachea.      15,    esopliagus.      C,    vertebra.      D,    crop,    filled    with    grains 
of    wheat.      E,    infraorbital    or    maxillary    sinus.      F,    frontal    sinus. 
G,    feathers.      H,   nostrils.      I,    eyes.      J,   musculature. 


156  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Conjunctivitis:    Inflammation  of  the  Eye 

Most  inflammations  of  the  respiratory  passages 
extend  to  and  involve  the  eye  structures  also. 
These  atiFectious  of  the  eye  have  been  described 
under  catarrh,  roup,  etc. 

There  are  many  causes  of  inflammation  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  eye  aside  from  the  speci- 
fic germs  heretofore  mentioned.  A  chick  was 
brought  to  the  laboratory  with  one  eye  very  much 
swollen.  Upon  examination,  there  was  found  a 
piece  of  straw  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in 
length  lodged  in  the  conjunctival  sac.  Upon  re- 
moval of  this  piece  of  straw,  and  the  application 
of  a  one-per-cent  solution  of  zinc  sulphate,  the 
inflammation  subsided  in  the  course  of  a  day  or 
two. 

The  number  and  variety  of  foreign  bodies  that 
may  gain  access  to  the  eye  structures  and  set  up 
inflammation  are  numberless.  In  most  cases  their 
careful  removal  and  washing  the  eye  with  a  sat- 
urated solution  of  boracic  acid  or  a  solution  of 
zinc  sulphate  and  water,  1  to  100,  is  all  the  treat- 
ment that  is  required. 

Similar  washes  are  indicated  for  conjunctivitis 
due  to  injuries,  spurring,  picking  blows,  etc. 


SECTION  XII 

Diseases  of  the  Legs  and 
Feet 

Leg-Weakness 

This  is  a  condition  in  which  the  birds  cannot 
bear  their  own  weight,  or  have  difficulty  in  doing 
so.  It  occnrs  in  yonng  as  well  as  in  old  birds. 
Knowledge  as  to  the  causes  of  leg  weakness, 
so  common  at  times  in  certain  localities,  is  im- 
perfect. The  conditions  are  being  investigated, 
however,  in  several  laboratories. 

Causes. —  Improperly  heated  brooders,  too  much 
bottom  heat,  damp  and  badly  ventilated  houses, 
heavy  cockerels,  kept  constantly  on  wooden  floors, 
are  among  the  conditions  which  bring  about  leg 
weakness.  In  some  cases  it  is  probably  a  rheu- 
matic condition,  and  there  are  some  forms  which 
no  doubt  are  due  to  a  lack  of  lime  salts  in  the 
bones  and  other  tissues. 

Symptoms.— At  times  this  disease  appears  sud- 
denly, at  other  times  it  develops  slowly.  It  may 
affect  only  one,  or  at  most,  a  few  birds,  or  it  may 
affect  many.  There  is  unsteadiness  in  walking, 
and  in  badly  affected  cases  the  bird  sits  around 
much  of  the  time.  Finally  it  is  unable  to  rise,  and 
may  even  lie  on  its  side. 

Treatment. — Give  one  sixth-grain  doses  of  strych- 
nine sulphate,  dissolved  in  water,  three  times  a 
day;  also  two-grain  doses  of  salicylate  of  soda  in 
the  same  manner.  Give  one  tablespoonful  of  cas- 
tor oil  in  severe  cases  in  adult  chickens. 

157 


158 


POUI/FRY  DISEASES 


Have  the  quarters  properly  ventilated,  clean, 
free  from  dam]iness,  and  supply  the  birds  witli 
ft'ood  feed  and  water.  If  the  cause  be  a  lack  of 
lime  salts  (rachitis),  milk  and  lime  water  should 
be  given  freely. 

Foot  Abscesses 

This  condition  is  not  rare  in  fowls.  Fig.  49 
shows  an  abscess  due  to  a  Russian  thistle  thorn 

having  punctured  the 
soft  structures  be- 
tween the  toes.  A  in- 
dicates the  opening, 
through  which  a 
cheesy  pus  was  re- 
moved by  the  aid  of 
a  curette  (pus  scoop). 
No  treatment  other 
than  liberation  of  the 
])us  is  ordinarily  re- 
(juired. 

Bumble  Foot 


This 
similar 
going. 


condition  is 
to  the  fore- 
Birds    often 


,.  ...         ,  r  e  c  e  i  V  e    a    ''stone 

ric.    511.      I  HORN    Abscess 
A,    Opinins    tlirouRli    which    chcc-y    pus        bruisc"      On      tllC      SOft 
was  libcralcd.  ,  ,  p   l^        i      i 

structures  or  the  bot- 
tom of  the  foot;  a  thick  or  cheesy  pus  accumu- 
lates, producing  the  condition  known  as  bumble 
foot.  The  pus  should  be  allowed  to  escape  by 
opening  tlie  abscess  and  scraping  it  out.  Place 
ilic  l)ird  in  a  clean,  dry  place,  preferably  on 
sti-aw,  so  as  to  keep  dirt  out  of  tlie  sore;  wash 
out  witli  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  LEGS  AND  FEET     159 

Bumble  foot  is  usually  caused  by  jumping  from 
high  roosts  onto  hard  floors.  The  roost  should  be 
lowered,  to  obviate  further  trouble  from  this 
source. 

Gout 

Hutyra  and  Marek  describe  a  gout  affecting  the 
feet  of  birds.    This  condition  is  evidently  rare. 


SECTION  XIII 

Diseases  of  the  Brain 

Dizziness — Vertigo 

Affections  of  the  brain  are  comparatively  rare 
in  birds.  Vertigo  has  been  known  where  the 
brain  is  congested,  especially  in  very  fat,  pleth- 
oric birds.  Excessive  heat  in  hot  snmmer  weather ; 
absorption  of  poisonous  substances  (toxins)  from 
the  intestinal  tract;  irritation  due  to  intestinal 
worms ;  injury  to  the  head,  as  by  a  blow,  etc.,  are 
the  chief  causes  of  dizziness  in  birds. 

S5miptoms. — The  bird  throws  its  head  upward, 
backward,  and  to  one  side.  It  may  walk  side- 
wise  or  backward,  and  have  an  unsteady  walk — 
staggery.  The  bird  may  be  drowsy,  and  even  have 
epileptiform  symptoms. 

Treatment. — Place  the  affected  bird  in  cool,  well 
ventilated,  comfortable  quarters,  free  from  drafts, 
and  give  thirty  grains  of  Epsom  salt,  dissolved 
in  warm  water.  Give  also  two-grain  doses  stron 
tium  bromide  every  hour.  Thorough  purging  is 
one  of  the  first  essentials. 

In  case  of  limber  neck  (due  to  eating  rotten 
meat)  and  prostration,  give  one-fifth  grain  strych- 
nine three  times  a  day.    (See  page  102.) 

Hemorrhage  of  the  Brain 

This  condition  is  technically  called  apoplexy. 
It  may  be  due  to  over-straining,  as  in  egg-laying, 
in  very  fat  birds.  Injury  to  the  head  and  over- 
stimulating  food  are  also  causes. 

161 


162  POULTRY  DISEASES 

S5miptoms. — The  heii  may  be  found  dead  on  the 
nest.  The  symptoms  are  of  short  duration:  the 
attack  comes  on  suddenly,  as  the  hemorrhage  soon 
presses  on  the  brain  structures  so  that  the  func- 
tion of  that  part  stops  and  the  animal  is  seen  to 
stagger,  fall,  and  die  immediately. 

Postmortem  Findings.— Upon  opening  the  brain 
cavity  and  examining  the  brain,  there  will  be 
found  hemorrhages  (clots)  in  the  brain  substance. 


SECTION  XIV 

Bacteria  of  the  Intestinal 
Tract  of  Chickens 

The  bacterial  flora  of  the  intestinal  tract  of  birds 
has  been  receiving  considerable  study  during  re- 
cent years.  The  alimentary  tract  of  man  and  ani- 
mals contains  many  millions  of  bacteria,  of  many 
varieties.  Many  of  these  are  constantly  present 
and  constitute  what  is  known  as  the  normal  in- 
testinal flora.  In  the  newly-born  child  or  animal 
the  intestinal  tract  is  sterile,  that  is,  it  contains 
no  germs,  but  as  soon  as  it  partakes  of  food  and 
water  the  intestines  are  seeded  and  ever  after 
contain  bacteria  in  large  numbers.  The  same  can 
be  said  of  the  chick. 

Some  of  these  germs  are  not  harmful,  but  give 
off  ferments  similar  to  the  cells  of  the  accessory 
glands  of  digestion;  these  ferments  may  aid  in 
splitting  up  foodstuffs  and  in  preparing  it  for 
absorption.  Ferments  of  this  kind  have  been 
called  organized  ferments,  but  we  have  now 
learned  that  such  ferments  do  not  in  any  way 
differ  in  action  from  those  secreted  by  the  stom- 
ach, pancreas  or  intestinal  glands.  It  is  their  fer- 
ments, and  not  the  germs  themselves,  that  cause 
tlie  splitting  up  of  the  food  nutrients. 

Some  of  the  bacteria  are  at  times  injurious,  and 
often  times  pathogenic  organisms  (disease  germs) 
gain  access  to  the  intestinal  tract  and  may  pro- 
duce disease,  if  the  bird  is  susceptible.  There 
are  also,  at  times,  protozoa  present,  especially 
those  belonging  to  the  coccidia  group. 

163 


164  POULTRY  DISEASES 

The  following  germs  have  been  found  as  normal 
inhabitants  of  the  duodenum,  or  first  portion  of 
tlie  intestines,  of  birds : 

Bacillus  mesentericus,  Bacillus  suhtilis,  Bacillus 
rainosus,  Bacillus  sereiis,  Bacillus  asterosporus, 
Bacillus  fusiformis,  Bacillus  coli  communis,  Strep- 
tococcus lacticus,  Bacillus  lactis  aerogenes,  Bacil- 
lus prodigiosus,  Sarcina  aurantiaca,  Sarcina  lutea, 
Sarcina  ventriculus,  Clathodrix  asteroides,  Micro- 
coccus rosettaceus,  brown,  white,  and  green  molds, 
coral  and  white  yeasts.  Micrococcus  roseus  and 
Clamydoth rlr  ferrugenes. 

In  tlie  third  portion  of  the  intestines,  or  ileum, 
may  be  foimd  green  and  white  molds,  Cladothrix 
asteroides.  Bacillus  cloaca',  Bacillus  ramosus,  Sar- 
cina lutea  and  Sarcina  aurantiaca,  Staphylococcus 
pyogenes  idhus  and  citreus,  Staphylococcus  cereus 
alhus,  BacUlus  fuorescens  liquefaciens,  Micrococ- 
cus asterosporus,  Streptococcus  lacticus.  Bacillus 
lactis  (crogenes.  Bacillus  coli  communis.  Bacillus 
prodigiosus,  Bacilh{s  mesentericus,  Bacillus  cer- 
eus. Bacillus  megatherium.  Bacillus  fusiformis, 
Bacillus  stihtilis. 

Practically  the  same  microorganisms  are  to  bo 
found  in  the  cecum.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
cloaca,  with  possibly  the  addition  of  the  Bacillus 
wrogenes  capsulal us  find  Staphylococcus  pyogenes 
aureus. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  intestinal  flora 
is  probably  not  the  same  for  all  birds,  as  different 
surroundings  or  environment,  different  sources  of 
food,  as  well  as  different  food  and  water,  play  a 
part  in  carrying  germs  to  the  intestinal  tract. 


SECTION  XV 

The  Egg 

Composition 

An  average-sized  lieu  egg  weighs  about  two 
ounces,  of  which  eleven  per  cent  is  shell,  thirty-two 
per  cent  yolk,  and  fifty-seven  per  cent  white.  The 
principal  chemical  constituents  of  the  egg  are  as 
follows:  Ash  (mineral  matter)  nine  per  cent;  fat 
(hydrocarbon)  nine  and  three-tenths  per  cent; 
proteids  (nitrogenous  matter)  eleven  and  nine- 
tentlis  per  cent ;  and  water,  sixty-five  and  five- 
tenths   per   cent. 

Animal  Parasites  in  Eggs 

Eeports  have  been  made  that  worms  have  been 
found  in  eggs.  The  author  has  not  had  the  good 
fortune  to  examine  any  of  these  worms  for  the 
purpose  of  classification,  but  it  is  probable  that 
the  Ascaris  inflexa  or  Heferakis  papiUosa  and 
other  round  worms,  normally  inhabiting  the  in- 
testines, may  find  their  way  up  the  egg  canal  and 
be  incori:»orated  with  the  egg  as  it  is  formed.  By 
referring  to  Plate  I,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  live 
worm,  possessing  power  of  movement  as  these 
worms  do,  passing  into  the  cloaca  (16)  from  the 
rectum  (15)  can  pass  up  the  egg  canal  (23)  and 
thus  be  incorporated  in  the  albumen  of  the  egg,  as 
it  is  formed  around  the  yolk.  These  conditions 
are  rare. 

Bacteria  of  Eggs 

Several  investigators  have,  of  recent  years,  de- 
voted much  time  to  the  investigation  of  the  bac 

165 


166  POULTRY  DISEASES 

terial  flora  of  eggs.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  all 
understand  that  the  spoiling  of  eggs  is  due  to  the 
mnltiplication  of  haeteria  in  them,  when  the  egg 
is  bronglit  nndor  ]no])er  temperature.  The  cold 
storage  of  eggs  liolds  them  nnder  conditions  un- 
favorable for  tlie  rapid  growth  of  these  bacteria. 
When  eggs  are  kept  cold  the  bacteria  within  them 
are  in  a  more  or  less  dormant  state  and  hence  by 
reason  of  this  retardation  of  germ  growth  the 
eggs  keep  longer. 

Eggs  can  be  successfully  desiccated  (dried)  and 
such  powdered  product  is  on  the  market.  The 
moisture  in  it  is  so  reduced  that  germs  do  not 
grow  and,  like  any  other  dried  product,  it  keeps 
well.  This  desiccated  product  retains  the  quali- 
ties of  the  fresh  egg  for  a  long  time.  One  pound 
represents  about  three  and  one-half  pounds  of  raw 
egg  or  an  amount  obtained  from  thirty  eggs.  The 
egg  contains  considerable  fat  and  because  of  this 
the  dried  ])roduet  gradually  undergoes  a  change 
at  warm  temperatures,  much  as  butter  does, 
finally  giving  off  a  rancid  fishlike  odor. 

It  is  not  probable  that  the  yolk  or  ovum  be- 
comes infected  while  it  is  being  formed  in  the 
ovary,  unless  the  ovary,  from  which  it  deveIo]:»s,  ))e 
diseased.  It  has  been  shown  that  birds  that  have 
had  white  diarrhea  while  chicks  and  recovered, 
grown  to  maturity,  and  commenced  laying,  have 
diseased  ovaries,  ovaries  which  harbor  the  Bac- 
terium piiUoriiw,  the  cause,  or  at  least  one  of 
the  causes,  of  white  diarrhea,  and  this  germ  is 
incorporated  within  the  yolk  of  the  egg.  Cliicks 
which  hatch  from  such  infected  eggs  develop  white 
diarrhea  soon  after  hatching.  This  is  an  import- 
ant means  of  spreading  tliis  disease  and  one  be- 
fore which  sanitation  is  powerless. 


THE  EGG  167 

Ordinarily  the  internal  organs,  as  the  ovaries, 
kidneys,  spleen,  etc.,  are  sterile  unless  diseased, 
as  jnst  stated.  However,  Conradi  maintains  that 
he  has  found  bacteria  in  these  supposedly'  sterile 
organs  in  seventy-two  cases  out  of  one-hundred- 
sixty-two. 

The  germs  that  have  been  alluded  to  under  in- 
testinal flora  of  chickens  can  easily  find  their  way 
into  the  cloaca  and  up  the  oviduct,  as  illustrated 
in  Plate  I.  The  yolk  or  o^nim  when  fully  de- 
veloped in  the  ovary  is  delivered,  in  a  similar 
manner,  as  in  higher  animal  life,  into  the  first 
portion  of  the  oviduct  (uterus),  which  at  its  free 
extremity  is  rather  funnel  shaped  and  is  called 
the  ostium  infundibulum.  This  egg  canal  which 
can  be  likened  to  the  uterus  of  higher  animals  is 
about  eighteen  to  twenty  inches  long  and  is 
lined  with  tubular  glands  which  secrete  the  al- 
bumen, and  in  the  posterior  portion  the  shell. 
This  material  is  formed  from  foods  carried  by 
the  blood,  which  is  very  abundant  in  these  walls. 
As  the  egg  traverses  the  cloaca  in  being  passed 
out  (layed)  it  is  exposed  to  contamination  by 
microorganisms  which  may  be  taken  up  into  the 
o\'iduct  with  the  male  element  (spermatozoa) 
after  copulation.  Bacteria  are  not  so  common 
in  non-fertilized  eggs  as  they  are  in  fertilized 
eggs,  a  fact  that  supports  this  theory. 

Many  of  the  organisms  (germs)  found  in  eggs 
are  nonmotile,  so  that  they  must  find  their  way  up 
this  canal  by  extension  by  growth  or  be  carried 
mechanically.  Among  the  bacteria  that  have 
been  found  in  eggs  are:  Micrococcus  nonlique- 
faciens,  Staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus  and 
alhus,  Bacillus  prodigiosus.  Bacillus  violaceus, 
Bacillus  putridis,  Bacillus  mesentericus,  Bacillus 


168  POULTRY  DISEASES 

fecalis  alcaligenes,  Bacillus  putridus  nonlique- 
faciens,  Streptococci,  Micrococcus  leteus,  Micro- 
coccus candicans,  Micrococcus  flarus  tardigradus. 

The  colon  bacillus  is  ever  present  in  the  in- 
testinal tract  of  chickens  and  is  fonnd  on  the  outer 
shell,  yet  contamination  of  the  egg*  content  by  it 
does  not  occur.  This  has  led  some  to  tliink  that 
there  may  be  a  substance  present  in  the  egg  canal 
bactericidal  for  this  germ  and  the  matter  is  being 
investigated  at  present. 

Poppe  claims  that  among  those  germs  which  find 
their  way  through  the  |)ores  of  tlie  ^^g  shell  after 
it  is  layed  is  the  Bacillus  paratyphosis,  the  cause 
of  paratyphoid  in  man. 


SECTION  XVI 

Isolation  of  Non-Layers 

The  problem  of  isolation  of  non-laying  hens,  the 
hens  that  are  not  in  the  earning  class,  is  a  per- 
plexing problem  to  the  poultryman.  Books  have 
been  written  and  column  after  column  published 
in  the  various  poultry  journals  on  this  subject. 
Only  a  thought  or  two  will  be  given  here. 

There  are  three  plausible  methods :  1.  The 
X-ray.  2,  The  public-bone  examination,  and  3, 
the  trap  nest  plan. 

The  X-Ray 

During  the  past  three  years  the  author  has  ex- 
perimented with  several  X-Ray  machines,  in  an 
effort  to  determine  whether  such  examinations 
are  feasible.  Fig.  51  shows  a  skiagraph  of  a 
laying  hen.  B  shows  the  shadow  of  an  egg  fully 
developed  and  lying  in  the  posterior  portion  of 
the  oviduct.  It  is  ready  to  l)e  laid.  A  shows 
the  active  ovarj-.  It  is  located  just  back  of  the 
ribs  (thorax,  see  plate  I). 

It  is  questionable  whether  the  time  required 
to  become  experienced  enough  to  be  proficient  in 
such  examination  will  pay,  besides  the  X-Ray 
machine  cannot  be  handled  carelessly,  as  too  much 
exposure  of  the  hands  and  other  parts  of  the  body 
causes  the  so-called  X-Ray  skin  disease. 

Pubic-Bone  Examination 

Two  small,  slender,  flat,  narrow  bones  extend 
down  backwards  from  the  flat  shell-like  por- 
tion of  the  back  (pelvis).     These  are  the  pubic 

169 


170  POULTRY  DISEASES 

bones  of  the  cliicken  and  are  attached  by  liga- 
ments to  the  other  bones  of  the  pelvis  from  which 
they  extend.  The  exact  location  of  these  bones 
in  a  laying  hen  are  illustrated  in  a  skiagraph,  Fig. 
52.  By  a  little  practice  these  bones  can  be  located. 
In  non-laying  hens  these  bones  are  found  close 
together,  so  that  perliaps  only  one  finger  can  be 
introduced  between  them.     As  the  hen  begins  to 


^1 

'p——' 

^^^^^^^^^HT  '^ 

■H 

lllgjjjjgljjjjllll^^ 

^^^^^^1 

■L — 

Fig.    51.     Skiagraph    of    Posterior    Part    of    Abdomen    of    a    Hen 
A,    Functionating     (active)     ovary.       ]>,    egg    in    posttrior    pari    of    egg 
canal   (fully  developed).     C,  femur   (thigh  bone).     D.  tibia    (U's  bone). 

enter  a  laying  period  they  become  more  widely 
separated,  until  instead  of  being  only  a  finger's 
breadth  apart,  two,  three  and  at  times  even  four 
fingers  can  be  forced  between  them.  As  the  lay- 
ing period  comes  on  the  ligaments  relax  and  allow 
the  necessary  separation  to  permit  the  passage  of 
the  egg.  It  will  be  noted,  also  by  referring  to 
Plate  I,  that  the  ovary  lies  against  the  ])a(^kbi)ne 


ISOLATION  OF  NON-LAYERS 


171 


(vertebra)  and  just  back  of  the  ribs  (thorax) ; 
that  the  tortuous  oviduct  or  egg  canal  in  which 
the  egg  develops  lies  close  to  the  back.  This 
means  when  a  laying  period  is  on  more  room  is 
needed  by  the  ovarian  mass,  as  well  as  by  the 
active  oviduct.  Consequently  the  adbominal  or- 
gans settle  more  to  the  bottom  of  the  cavity  and 
the  shape  of  the  body  of  the  bird  changes.     A 


Fig.    52.     Skiagraph    of    Normal   Hen 

A,    Pubic   bones.      B,    femur   (pulled   back).     The   distance   between   the 

pubic   bones   indicates    whether  or   not    the    bird   is   laying. 

laying  hen  is  a  good  feeder.  Out  early  in  the 
morning,  late  to  go  to  roost,  red  comb,  always 
hunting  bugs  and  other  food,  singing,  happily 
disposed  and  usually  has  a  full  crop.  The  non- 
layer  does  not  brave  the  storm  and  rain,  goes 
to  the  roost  early,  leaves  it  late  in  the  morning, 
is  a  poor  feeder  and  not  happily  disposed — a 
sort  of  drone. 


172 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


Trap  Nest 

Fig.  53  illustrates  the  trap  nest.  The  birds  are 
placed  in  one  yard,  the  nest  arranged  between 
the  two  and  the  rooster  placed  in  the  second.  A 
hen  going  into  the  nest  tilts  tlie  trap  so  that  there 
is  only  one  yard  for  her  to  go  in  after  she  is 
through  laying  and  that  is  the  one  in  which  the 
rooster  is  found.     After  she  leaves  the  next  the 


Fig.  53.  Trap  Nest 
The  hens  are  confined  in  one  pen  and  the  cockerel  in  another,  sep- 
arated from  the  first  by  a  small  building,  in  wliich  the  nests  arc 
placed.  When  a  hen  gets  on  the  nest  her  weight  causes  the  weight 
shown  to  rise  and  close  the  entrance.  When  she  leaves  the  nest 
she  goes  through  the  exit,  which  is  open  while  the  nest  is  lowered, 
into  the  pen  with  the  cockerel.  Relieved  of  the  weight  of  the  hen, 
the  nest  rises,  closing  the  exit  and  again  opening  the  entrance  to 
the  building. 

weight  on  the  trap  again  opens  the  nest  to  the 
first  yard.  A  criticism  has  been  raised  that  a  hen 
goes  on  a  nest  often  times  when  she  does  not  want 
to  lay  and  is  a  non-layer.  Perhaps  she  does,  but, 
notwithstanding,  I  have  seen  excellent  results  ob- 
tained by  this  method. 

Non-laying  may  be  due  to  old  age  or  disease 
of  the  ovary  or  other  of  the  egg-developing  or- 
gans, but  is  much  oftener  due  to  improper  feeding 


ISOLATION  OF  NON-LAYERS 


173 


or  lack  of  exercise.  Of  course  it  is  understood 
that  hens  normally  have  a  longer  or  shorter  pe- 
riod of  rest  between  egg-laying  seasons. 

Trap  Nest  That  Stays  in  Order 

The  Storrs  Station  (Connecticut)  describes  the 
trap  nest,  illustrated  l)y  the  accompanying  draw- 
ing, as  *'one  that  stays  in  order." 

The  upper  figure  in  perspective  shows  five  nests 
arranged  side  by  side.  By  making  the  nests  in 
a  series  considerable  lumber  is  saved.    Swinging 


Fig.  54 

doors  (D)  are  fastened  to  a  rod  running  the  en- 
tire length  of  the  box.  Stops  (F)  prevent  the 
doors  from  swinging  outward.  L  is  a  lever 
pivoted  to  the  partition  (P)  so  that  one  arm  is 
about  five  times  as  long  as  the  other.  The  lower 
cross-section  sketches  show  how  the  lever  and 
door  are  arranged. 

To  enter  the  nest  the  hen  flies  onto  the  walk 
(W)  and  crowds  under  the  door  (D)  which  is 
partly  open.  In  so  doing,  she  lifts  the  door 
slightly,  and  the  long  end  of  the  lever  (L)  falls, 
being  heavier  than    the    short   end.      The   door 


174  POULTRY  DISEASES 

swings  shut  passing  over  the  pivot  and  the  shorter 
end  of  the  lever.  When  the  door  is  shut  the 
lower  end  of  the  lover  rests  on  the  floor  of  the 
nest,  and  the  short  end  acts  as  a  stop  on  tlie  in- 
side, preventing  another  hen  from  crowding  into 
the  nest.  AVhen  the  egg  is  gathered  tlie  trap  nest 
is  set  again  by  raising  the  long  end  of  tlie  lever 
and  propping  back  the  door.  The  two  right-hand 
nests  in  the  upper  sketch  show  the  position  of 
the  doors  and  levers  before  the  hen  enters.  The 
other  nests  show  the  traps  closed. 


SECTION  XVII 

Malformations 

Malformations  among  birds  are  occasionally 
observed.  A  complete  discussion  of  the  dozens 
of  various  forms  of  malformations  that  may  be 
found  cannot  be  given  here  for  lack  of  space,  but 
a  few  facts  will  be  given. 

In  higher  animal  life,  including  man,  malforma- 
tions have  been  attributed  to  the  following  causes : 

External  mechanical  influences,  such  as  falls, 
blows,  or  severe  shock  of  any  kind,  by  affecting 
the  general  health  of  the  pregnant  female,  may 
have  power  to  arrest,  retard,  or  otherwise  dis- 
turb the  normal  development  of  the  embryo  or 
fetus. 

If  the  above  should  hold  true  in  the  human  or 
even  animals,  obviously  it  cannot  do  so  for  birds. 

The  so-called  spontaneous  amputation,  in  utero, 
by  a  coil  of  the  umbilical  cord  finding  its  way 
around  a  part  of  the  fetus  and  causing  pressure 
and  amputation,  cannot  hold  with  chickens  nor 
will  acute  and  chronic  placentitis,  causing  adhe- 
sions, hardly  hold  for  birds. 

The  percentage  of  malformations  in  the  human 
family  is  one  to  three  or  four  thousand  births ; 
in  the  lower  animals  and  birds  the  percentage  is 
much  smaller. 

During  the  formation  of  the  fetus  an  arrest  of 
development  of  the  bud  which  forms  the  wing 
may  result  in  a  malformed  wing ;  the  same  can  be 
said  of  any  other  part,  as  the  leg,  beak,  etc. 

If  the  arrangement  of  the  groups  of  cells 
175 


176  POULTRY  DISEASES 

during  development  does  not  follow  the  normal 
typo,  tlien  malformations,  as  atresia,  imper- 
forate anus,  or  other  natural  openings  may  re- 
sult; abnormal  position  of  viscera,  a  failure  of 
the  closure  of  the  abdominal  or  thoracic  plates 
may  take  place. 

The  germ  or  embyro  is  first  developed    as    a 
manifold  membraneous  expansion,  the  free  mar- 


5*  ' 


Fig.    55.     Monster    Chilk    (.Uipygus    tetiabrachiun) 

Showing   two    bodies,    four   legs,    four   wings   and 

one  head. 

gins  of  which  incline  towards  each  other,  and 
eventually  meet  to  form  two  cavities.  A  failure 
to  meet  results  in  malformation.  Fusion  of  parts 
may  also  take  place. 

Those  malformations  in  which  there  are  super- 
numerary parts  or  duplications  of  almost  an  en- 
tire body  are  sometimes  called  composite  or  com- 
l)ound  malformations  and  monsters. 

Hermaphroditism  is  a  complete  duplication  of  both  male 
and  female  genital  organs;  i.  e:,  a  single  individual  possessing 


MALFORMATIONS 


177 


both  male  and  female  genital  organs.  Pseudo-herma- 
phrodltism  isa  condition  in  which  the  duplication  is  only 
partial.  It  is  desirable  that  more  scientific  observations  be 
made  along  these  lines,  in  birds,  and  recorded. 

The  double-yolked  eggs,  in  cases  where  two  ova  have  been 
delivered  into  the  oviduct  at  the  same  time,  and  both  being 
surrounded  by  albumen  and  finally  one  shell,  have  been  sup- 
posed to  produce  double  monsters,  but  there  is  a  scientific 
record  in  which  eighty  such  eggs  were  incubated  (all  from 
the  domestic  fowl)  and  in  each  separate  twins  were  pro- 
duced, in  some  both  males,  in  others  females,  and  in  others 
one  of  each  sex.  In  one  case  out  of  the  eighty  one  yolk 
developed  a  single 
chick  and  the  other  a 
double  monster. 

Thompson  made  a 
study  of  a  double  em- 
bryo in  the  egg  of  a 
goose,  which  had  been 
incubated  five  days. 
This  study  showed  a 
double  primitive  trace 
is  actually  formed  on  a 
single  b  1  a  s  t  o  d  ermic 
membrane  proceeding  a 
single  vitellus  and  vitel- 
line membrane.  This 
same  work  has  been 
corroborated  by  others 
so  fortunate  as  to  find 
these  monstrosities  in 
early  stages  of  develop- 
ment. 

Compound  monsters 
proceed  from  single 
germs  which  have  sub- 
s  e  q  u  e  n  tly  undergone 
different  degrees  of 
dichrotomy.     They   are 

governed  in  their  development  by  certain  fixed  and  invariable 
laws  among  which  are  unity  of  sex,  homologous  fusion  and 
bilateral  symmetry.     In  each  case  there  is  single  sexuality. 

The  various  forms  of  duplex  development  are  determined 
by  the  extent  to  which  the  primitive  trace  is  cleft,  and  also 
by  the  limitations  of  the  dichotomy  to  the  cephalic  or  caudal 
extremity  of  the  neural  axis.  Either  or  both  extremities  may 
become  bifid.  The  cephalic  or  head  extremity  may  become 
bifid  alone  and  a  double  head,  or  still  further  bifid  and  the 
posterior  extremities  single  or  the  posterior  extremity  be- 
come bifid  and  the  anterior  single. 

Figs.  55  and  56  illustrates  a  duplication  of  the  legs.  The 
rudimentary  legs  are  perfect,  but  not  so  well  developed  as  the 
other  two.     This  is  polymelus. 


Fig.    56.     Polymelus    (natural    size) 
A,  The   two  supernumerary  legs. 


SECTION  XVIII 

Fractures     Wounds — Anes- 
thesia 

Fractures 

Fractures  or  broken  bones  among  birds  in  the 
poultry  yards  are  of  rather  common  occurrence, 
especially  where  birds  are  allowed  the  run  of  the 
farm  or  ranch,  as  is  the  usual  custom. 

Fractures  of  the  legs  below  the  thigh  are  easily 
set  and  with  good  results.  The  materials  needed 
for  this  procedure  are  glue,  a  strip  of  muslin 
from  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  wide  and  from 
one  to  two  feet  in  length,  and  in  case  of  large 
birds,  narrow  strips  of  stiff  pasteboard  or  small 
pieces  of  wood,  as  tooth  picks  or  matches. 

"Warm  the  glue  and  smear  a  light  coat  of  glue 
over  the  leg  for  some  distance  above  and  below 
the  fracture  (break  in  the  bone),  adjust  the  broken 
bone  and  apply  one  layer  of  tape,  then  a  thin  layer 
of  glue,  then  tape  and  so  on  until  sufficient  has 
been  applied  to  hold  the  broken  parts  firmly.  In 
the  case  of  large  bones,  as  in  adult  birds,  the 
splints  should  be  placed  in  the  glue  between  the 
layers  of  tape.  Too  much  glue  between  the  layers 
should  be  avoided,  as  it  does  not  dry  readily. 
Adhesive  tape  cut  in  narrow  strips  has  given  good 
results  also. 

The  repair  of  broken  bones  in  birds  takes  place 
rapidly.  In  the  course  of  two  to  three  weeks,  de- 
pending on  the  age  of  the  bird  and  size  of  the 
bone,  the  cast  may  be  removed.  To  do  this,  where 

179 


180  POULTRY  DISEASES 

glue  has  been  used,  wet  until  the  cast  has  become 
thoroughly  soaked  witli  warm  water  and  remove. 
The  adhesive  tape  can  be  easily  removed  from 
the  leg. 

Wounds 

Birds  possess  a  high  immunity  to  pyogenic  in- 
fection (the  germs  that  ordinarily  infect  the 
wounds  of  animals) ;  and  wounds,  whether  acci- 
dental or  surgical,  unless  very  serious,  heal  with 
great  rapidity.  The  degree  of  tolerance  of  in- 
fection that  the  peritoneum  (lining  of  the  ab- 
dominal cavity  and  covering  of  the  abdominal 
organs)  of  birds  possesses  is  probably  not 
equalled  by  the  peritoneum  of  any  domestic  ani- 
mal or  of  man.  For  example,  birds  rarely  die 
from  infection  after  caponizing.  Death  when  it 
occurs  as  a  result  of  this  operation  is  ordinarily 
due  to  hemorrhage.  Man  and  animals  (except 
the  dog)  survive  abominal  operations  only  when 
made  under  aseptic  precautions. 

Anesthesia 

Unlike  tlieir  reaction  to  infection,  birds  are  far 
more  liable  to  die  from  the  effects  of  anesthetics 
than  animals  or  man.  The  relatively  large  surface 
of  the  air  cells  of  the  lungs  and  of  the  air  sacs, 
and  the  high  temperature  and  active  metabolism 
render  them  peculiarly  susceptible  to  anesthetics 
and  very  liable  to  die  from  their  use. 

R.  Pearl  and  Frank  M.  Surface  in  an  article 
in  the  Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Associa- 
tion, volume  52,  pp.  382  and  383,  report  satisfac- 
tory results  in  anesthetizing  birds  by  the  follow- 
ing method: 

Immediately  before  beginnning  the  administra- 
tion of  the  anesthetic  a  1-200  grain  atropine  sul- 


FRACTURES— SURGERY  ANESTHESIA     181 

pliate  tablet  is  dissolved  in  1  cc.  of  warm  normal 
saline  solution.  The  salt  solution  witli  the  dis- 
solved atropine  is  then  injected  subcutaneously 
in  the  axilla.  Ether  is  used  as  the  anesthetic.  It 
is  administered  from  a  small  improvised  mask 
which  admits  of  the  condition  of  the  comb  being 
seen  during  the  operation.  Depending  on  how 
hard  the  ether  is  pushed,  the  bird  is  ready  for 
operation  in  from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  after 
the  anesthesia  is  begun. 


INDEX 


Abnormal  eggs,  133 

Acanthia  Inodora,  54,  55 

Acanthocephala,    71 

Adenoma,    138 

Air  sac   disease,  47 

Ameba  melegridis,  85 

Anatomy,  digestive  tract,  15 
genito-urinary,   15. 
organs  of  circulation,  17 
organs  of  respiration,  16 

Anesthesia,  180 

Aphtha,    56 

Apoplectiform  septicemia,  107 

Appetite,   depraved,  79 

Argas  miniatus,  53 

Ascaris  inflexa,  60 

Aspergillosis,    145 

Aspergillus  fumigatus,  145 

Asthen,  113 

Autopsy,    mode    of    perform- 
ing, 33 

Bacterium  asthene,  113 
Bacillus   avisepticus,   79 
Bacillus  enteriditis,  113 
Bacteria     of     the     intestinal 

tract  of  chickens,  163 
Bedbug  of  poultry,  54 
Blackhead,  85 

Blastomycosis,  of  pigeon,  99 
Blood  diseases,  107 
Broken  eggs   in  the   oviduct, 

132 
Bronchitis,  142 
Bumble  foot,  158 

Cancer,  138 
Catarrh,  139 
Chickenpox,   147 
Chicken  cholera,  79 
Chicken  flea  infestation,  52 
Chigger  infestation,  49 
Choantaenia  infundibuli- 
formis,  69 


Cholera,  chicken — fowl,  79 

Cloaca,  prolapse  of,  132 

Cloacitis,   104 

Coccidiosis  in  wild  ducks,  100 

Conjunctivitis,  156 

Colds,   139 

Congestion  of  the  lungs,  143 

Constitutional  diseases,  113 

Contagious  epithelioma,  147 

Crop  bound,  76 

Crop  enlarged,  77 

Crop,  gangrene  of,  78 

Cystic  ovary,  136 

Cytodites  nudus,  47 

Davainea  tetragona,  70 
Dead  birds,  disposal  of,  32 
Depraved  appetite,  79 
Dermanyssus  gallinae,  50 
Diarrhea,  91 

white,  93 
Digestive  tract,  anatomy  of,  15 

diseases  of,  73 
Dipygus  tetrabrachium,   176 
Diseases  of  the  brain,  161 
Diseases  of  the  legs  and  feet, 

157 
Diseases  of  the  liver,  123 
Diseases    of    the    ovary    and 

oviduct,   129 
Diseases    of    the    respiratory 

passages,   139 
Disinfection,  24 

of  buildings,  25 
Drepanidotaenia      infundlbull- 

formis,  69 
Dizziness,  161 
Dysentery,  91 

EcHiNOBYNCHus  polymorphus, 

71 
Eggs,  abnormal,  133 
Egg,  animal  parasites  of,  165 
Egg,  bacteria  of,  165 


184 


INDEX 


Egg  bound,  130 
Egg,  composition   of,   165 
Endocarditis,  112 
Enlarged  crop,  77 
Enteritis,  '91 
Entero-hepatitis,  85 
Epithelioma,  138 

contagious,  147 
External  parasites,  35 
Eye,   inflammation  of,  156 

Fleas,  52 

Flukes,    72 

Foot   abscess,   158 

Fowl  cholera,  79 

Fowl  typhoid,  108 

Fractures,  179 

Fungi  affecting  birds,  55 

Gangrene  of  the  crop,  78 
Gaseous  crop,   77 
Going  light,  113 
Gonioctes  hologaster,  37 

eggs  of,  38 

stylifer,  37 
Gout,  159 

Heabt  disease,  112 
Heart,  rupture  of,  113 
Hematoma,  136 
Hemorrhage,    Internal,    113 
Hemorrhage  of  the  brain,  161 
Heterakis  Compressa,   66 

differens,   66 

maculosa,  66 

papulosa,  61-62 

tail  extremity,  63 
Heterakis  perspicillum,  60 

Impaction  of  the  crop,  76 
Infectious  leukemia,  108 
Inflammation  of  the  eye,  156 
Inflammation  of  the  lungs,  144 
Internal  hemorrhage,  113 
Internal  parasites,  59 
Isolation  of  non-layers,  169 

Lice   of  birds,   35 
of  chickens,  36 
of  ducks,  37 
of  geese,  38 
of  pigeons,  38 
of  turkeys,  37 


Llmberneck,  102 

Liver,  congestion  of,  125 

fatty  degeneration  of,  123 

fatty  infiltration  of,  124 

inflammation  of,   125 

rupture  of,  125 

unimportant   diseases    of, 
126 
LIpeurus  baculus,  38 
Lipeurus   infuscatus,  37 
Louse   infestation,   effects   of, 
39 

treatment  of,  40 
Lungs,  congestion  of,  143 

inflammation  of,  144 
Lymphosarcoma,  138 

Malfobmations,  175 
Menopon  biseriatum,  36 
pallidum,  36 

NoDULAB  tapeworm  disease,  70 
Notocotyle  verrucosum,  72 

Obstruction  of  the  beak,  74 
of  the  oviduct,  130 

Ovary,  cystic,  136 
diseases  of,  129 

Oviduct,  diseases  of,  129 
rupture  of,  131 

Pebicabditis,   112 
Pip,  74 

Pneumonia,   144 
Pneumomycosis,  145 
Poisoning,  arsenical,   101 

copper,  102 

lead,  102 

phosphorus,  102 

ptomain,  102 

salt,  102 

saltpeter,  102 

zinc,   102 
Polymelus,  177 
Prolapse  of  the  cloaca,  132 
Ptomain  poisoning,  102 
Public  bone  examination,  169 
Pulex  avium,  51,  52 

Red  mite  infestation,  49 
Ringworm,  honey-comb,  56 
Round   worms,   important,   59 
unimportant,  66 


INDEX 


185 


Roup,  149 

diphtheric,   149 
Rupture  of  the  heart,  113 

of  the  oivduct,  131 

Sanitation,  19 

Sianitary  buildings  and  runs, 
20 

site,  20 

water  supply,   22 
Sarcoma,  136 
Sarcoptes  mutans,  44 
Scabies,  43 

of  the  legs,  44 
Septicemia,  apoplectiform,  107 
Septicemia  of  geese,  108 
Sick  birds,  disposal  of,  32 
Sore  mouth,  56,   75 
Splrocheta  galllnarum,  110 
Spirochetosis,  110 
Spiroptera  hamulosa,  63 
Spray  pump,  42 
Stomatitis,  75 
Swelled  head,  149 
Swell-head  in  young  turkeys, 

146 
Syngamus  bronchialls,  64 

trachealis,  64 


Taenia  Infundibullformis,   69 

Tapeworms,  67 

Thorn-headed  worms,  71 

Thrombosis,   109 

Thrush,  56 

Tick  infestation,  53 

Tinea  favosa,  56 

Trap  nest,  172 

that  stays  in  order,  173 
Trematodes,  72 
Trichasomum,  66 
Trombidium  holosericeum,  49 
Tuberculosis,  117 
Tumors,  135 

blood,  136 

malignant,  136 

of  the  ovary,  136 
Tympany  of  the  crop,  77 


Vertigo,  161 


White  diarrhea,  93 
Wounds,  180 


X-Ray,  169 


I ~ 

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Dr.  L.  W.  Fetzer 

In   Preparation 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DOG 

C.  G.  Saunders,  V.  S.,  B.  V.  Sc. 

In   Preparation 


187 


k(pr 


